REESE  LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 
Deceived 

<Acce&sia»  No.  O(      .   Clams  No. 


7(. 

kO~< 


f*P. 


A  Rape  Plant  Grown  for  Seed. 

Whatcom  County,  Washington 


FORAGE 
CROPS 


OTHER 

THAN  GRASSES 


How  to  Cultivate, 

Harvest 

and  Use  Them 


By... 

THOMAS    SHAW 

Professor  of  Animal  Husbandry  at  the  University  of  Minnesota 

Author  of 

Public  School  Agriculture"     "Weeds  and  How  to  Eradicate  Them' 
"The  Study  of  Breeds"     "  Soiling  Crops  and  the  Silo" 


I  UNIVERSITY] 


ILLUSTRATED 


New  York 

ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 
1900 


Copyright,  1899 

BY 
ORANGE  JUDD  COMPANY 


To  the  Farmers  and  Stockmen  of  America,  this  work  is 
most  respectfully  dedicated  by  the  Author. 


AUTHOR'S  PREFACE 


This  work  has  been  written  in  the  hope  of  meet- 
ing a  long- felt  want.  It  has  been  the  aim  of  the 
writer  to  adapt  it  to  the  needs  of  the  farmer,  the 
stockman  and  the  agricultural  student.  It  is  left 
with  the  agriculturists  of  this  country  to  say  how  far 
these  objects  have  been  attained. 

University  Experiment  Farm, 
St.  Anthony  Park,  Minn.,  1900. 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


CHAPTER  I. 

PAGE 
Forage  Crops        ----....        .    l 

CHAPTER  II. 
Indian  Corn  or  Maize  -----.        9 

CHAPTER  III. 

Sorghum        ------.  .08 


CHAPTER  IV. 
The  Non-Saccharine  Sorghums        -        -        -        -        -      48 

CHAPTER  V. 

Plants  of  the  Clover  Family        -        -        -      *  .        .        _  57 

CHAPTER   VI. 
Leguminous  Plants  Other  Than  Clover    -        ...     IO3 

CHAPTER  VII. 
Rape  and  Cabbage  -  -        -        -        -        145 

CHAPTER  VIII. 
The  Common  Cereals        -------     170 

CHAPTER   IX. 
Millet      -        -        -  -        -        -        -        189 

CHAPTER  X. 
Root  Crops        -----._..    202 

CHAPTER  XI. 
Miscellaneous  Plants -221 

CHAPTER  XII. 
Succession  in  Forage  Crops  -----    252 

CHAPTER  XIII. 

Sheep  Pastures  Grown  at  the  Minnesota  University  Ex- 
periment   Farm  -        -        ... 


CHAPTER  L 

FORAGE    CROPS. 

Forage  in  its  widest  sense  means  any  food 
suitable  for  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine.  Thus 
applied,  it  would  include  pasture,  soiling  and  fodder 
crops,  and  all  manner  of  matured  seeds.  In  the  title 
given  to  this  book,  however,  and  in  the  book  itself, 
it  will  be  used  only  in  the  more  restricted  sense  of 
pasture  crops  other  than  those  provided  by  the  vari- 
ous grasses.  It  is  thus  used  for  the  reason,  first,  that 
in  the  ordinary  phraseology  of  the  farm,  it  is  so 
understood.  Second,  that  there  is  a  felt  necessity  for 
a  more  restricted  and  precise  use  of  certain  terms  in 
agriculture  that  have  heretofore  been  used  in  a  loose 
sense.  And,  third,  that  it  would  seem  to  express  the 
various  subjects  considered  in  the  book  more  accu- 
rately and  more  concisely  than  any  other  term  that 
could  be  chosen.  The  terms  forage  crops  as  thus 
defined,  and  pastures,  are  frequently  regarded  as 
synonymous  and  interchangeable.  But  grasses  are 
not  included  in  the  discussion,  for  the  reason,  first, 
that  where  grazed  off  they  are  usually  spoken  of  as 
pasture  crops,  and,  second,  that  to  include  them 
would  unduly  swell  the  contents  of  this  volume. 

In  nearly  all  instances  these  forage  crops  are 
sown  from  year  to  year,  whereas  grass  pastures  usu- 
ally endure  for  several  years.  In  many  instances  the 
latter  grow,  as  it  were,  spontaneously;  the  former 
seldom  do.  Forage  crops,  like  pastures,  are  fed  off 

i 


2  FORAGE    CROPS. 

by  the  animals  where  they  grow,  and  usually  in  the 
green  form ;  but  there  are  instances  where  both  may 
be  grazed  in  the  matured  form,  as  in  the  gleaning  of 
ripe  peas  by  swine,  or  the  grazing  of  buffalo  or  bunch 
grass  by  cattle  and  sheep  in  the  winter.  Some  of  these 
forage  crops  are  grown  and  grazed  off  in  succession 
the  same  season,  and  are  also  sown  as  "catch" 
crops,  while  grasses  are  never  thus  sown  or  grazed. 
And  some  forage  crops,  as,  for  instance,  Jerusalem 
artichokes,  are  gathered  from  beneath  the  surface  of 
the  ground,  whereas  grass  pastures  are  grazed  only 
on  the  surface. 

Soiling  and  Fodder  Crops  not  Considered. — 
In  this  book  the  question  of  forage  crops  only  will  be 
considered,  although  excellent  reasons  may  be  given 
for  including  soiling  and  fodder  crops  in  the  discus- 
sion. ( Soiling  food  may  be  defined  as  food  cut  or 
pulled  and  fed  to  animals  in  the  green  form.  And 
fodder  crops  may  be  defined  as  food  for  live  stock  in 
the  matured  form,  and  fed  before  or  after  the 
removal  of  the  seeds.\  Both  definitions  are 
restricted  rather  than  general,  as  both  terms 
are  sometimes  used,  and,  perhaps  unfortunately, 
in  a  wider  and  more  general  sense.  Among 
the  reasons  that  may  be  given  for  including 
these  crops  in  the  discussion,  are  the  follow- 
ing: First,  forage,  soiling  and  fodder  crops  each 
includes  a  large  number  of  the  same  plants.  And,  sec- 
ond, the  processes  of  preparing  the  land  for  many  of 
these  and  of  growing  them  up  to  a  certain  stage  are 
exactly  the  same.  Discussing  these  various  classes 
of  crops  therefore  together  would  avoid  no  little  repe- 
tition, which  it  would  be  impossible  to  avoid  when 
discussing  them  separately.  But  to  this  plan  there  is 


FORAGE    CROPS.  3 

the  one  strong  objection,  viz.,  that  it  would  so  swell 
the  contents  of  the  book  as  to  make  it  too  unwieldy 
for  commercial  use  as  a  text-book.  It  would  also 
increase  unduly  the  cost  of  the  book  to  those  readers 
who  are  desirous  of  obtaining  information  only  with 
reference  to  one  phase  of  this  three- fold  question. 

Possible  Exception  to  Definitions. — Agricultural 
literature  is  only  in  what  may  be  termed  the 
formative  stage.  And  more  especially  is  this 
true  of  agricultural  text-books.  Exception  may 
be  taken,  therefore,  by  those  critically  inclined 
to  almost  any  definition  that  may  be  given  of 
forage  crops,  and,  indeed,  of  other  classes  of 
crops,  as,  for  instance,  cereals  and  field  roots. 
In  formulating  definitions  in  agriculture,  no  bet- 
ter plan,  perhaps,  can  be  followed  than  to  give 
heed  to  the  common  understanding  regarding  the 
meaning  and  application  of  the  various  terms  in  use. 
But  this  common  understanding  is  not  an  absolutely 
safe  guide,  since  it  differs  sometimes  in  communities 
in  regard  to  the  use  of  a  certain  term,  and  often  it 
differs  even  in  the  same  community.  Some  time  must 
elapse,  therefore,  before  definitions  in  agriculture 
will  so  crystallize  as  to  assume  a  form  so  definite  and 
abiding  that  it  will  meet  with  universal  acceptance. 

A  Greatly  Important  Question. — The  growing 
of  forage  crops  is  to-day  what  may  be  termed  a  burn- 
ing question,  and  it  is  likely  to  become  more  and  more 
so  with  the  passing  of  the  years.  Some  time,  and  in 
the  future  that  is  near,  forage  crops  other  than 
grasses  will  be  grown  from  sea  to  sea,  but,  of  course, 
not  equally  in  all  parts  of  the  continent.  The  excep- 
tions will  be  the  range  and  mountain  districts,  which 
forbid  a  varied  agriculture. 


4  FORAGE    CROPS. 

But  little  attention  has  been  given  to  the  grow- 
ing of  this  class  of  forage  crops  in  the  past,  and  for 
manifest  reasons.  The  history  of  our  agriculture  has 
been  largely  one  of  occupancy.  Men  have  taken  pos- 
session of  the  soil  and  tilled  it  after  the  most  primi- 
tive fashion.  Such,  at  least,  has  been  its  history  in 
all  the  west.  While  it  is  true  that  some  progress  has 
been  made  in  intensive  cultivation  in  the  east,  such 
farming  has  been  greatly  hampered  by  the  tide  of 
agricultural  products  which  has  flowed  eastward  in 
great  volume  from  the  cheap  and  fertile  lands  of  the 
Mississippi  basin.  On  every  hand,  however,  there 
are  indications  of  change.  The  unoccupied  tillable 
domain  is  only  a  fraction  of  what  it  was.  And  this 
means  that  the  great  grazing  lands  of  the  tillable 
prairies  are  only  a  fraction  of  what  they  once  were. 
There  is  no  further  west.  Populations  are  increasing 
at  a  very  rapid  rate,  and,  therefore,  a  more  intensive 
cultivation  will  soon  become  a  necessity  in  all  parts 
of  the  continent.  And  with  the  increase  of  intensive 
cultivation,  as  surely  as  the  sun  goes  down  in  the 
evening,  increased  attention  will  be  given  to  the 
growing  of  these  forage  crops,  some  of  the  reasons 
for  which  will  be  stated  below. 

Why  Forage  Crops  Should  be  Grown. — Forage 
crops,  other  than  grasses  and  clovers,  should  be 
grown  because  of  the  many  benefits  which  they  bring 
to  those  who  grow  them.  Chief  among  these  are  the 
following :  First,  they  may  be  made  to  supplement 
pasture  crops  that  are  more  permanent,  that  is  to  say, 
perennial  in  character,  when  the  area  of  these  is  insuf- 
ficient, or  when  from  any  cause  or  causes  they  may  fail 
to  produce  plentifully.  Second,  many  of  them  may  be 
grown  as  catch  crops  where  other  crops  have  failed 


FORAGE    CROPS.  5 

to  grow,  hence  the  use  of  the  land  for  the  season  is 
not  lost.  Third,  by  growing  these  crops  the  farmer 
is  enabled  proportionately  to  increase  the  live  stock 
of  his  farm,  and,  in  consequence,  proportionately  to 
increase  its  producing  power.-  Fourth,  such  a  system 
exercises  a  salutary  influence  on  weed  eradication, 
because  of  the  frequency  with  which  the  ground  is 
plowed  and  otherwise  disturbed,  and  because  the 
weeds  which  grow  in  the  forage  are  usually  eaten 
down  before  they  mature  their  seeds.  Fifth,  it 
enables  the  farmer  to  provide  succulent  pasture  for 
animals  at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  when  ordi- 
narily it  could  not  be  obtained  in  any  other  way.  And, 
sixth,  it  provides  vegetation  that  may  be  plowed 
under  with  great  benefit  to  the  land,  when,  because 
of  its  abundance,  it  has  been  only  partially  consumed 
while  being  grazed. 

Who  Should  Grow  Forage  Crops. — All  farmers 
on  small  or  moderately  sized  holdings  who  keep  live 
stock  should  also  grow  forage  crops  in  addition  to 
their  grass  pastures,  since  they  so  much  reduce  the 
area  required  for  the  latter.  But  those  stock  grow- 
ers who  live  on  large  holdings,  and  more  especially 
those  of  them  whose  tillable  lands  are  in  climates 
where  the  rainfall  is  oftentimes  less  than  could  be 
desired,  should  also  grow  them.  In  these  areas  the 
yields  from  grass  pastures  are  frequently  small,  very 
much  less  than  can  be  obtained  from  crops  sown 
expressly  to  provide  pasture  for  a  single  season  or  but 
a  part  of  a  season.  As  a  rule,  therefore,  the  neces- 
sity for  growing  these  crops  will  increase  with  the 
less  favorable  conditions  for  growing  grass  pastures, 
and  vice  versa.  Those  crops  can,  however,  be  more 
profitably  grown  to  furnish  grazing  for  sheep  and 


6  FORAGE    CROPS. 

swine  than  to  furnish  the  same  for  cattle  and  horses, 
since  the  tramping  of  the  latter,  while  grazing,  leads 
to  a  greater  percentage  of  waste  in  the  pasture. 
Nevertheless,  some  of  these  pasture  crops  may  be 
grown  with  great  advantage  by  dairymen,  more 
especially  in  the  prairie  country  west  of  the 
Mississippi. 

The  Possible  Outcome. — When  farmers  gener- 
ally who  live  upon  arable  lands  give  that  attention  to 
the  growing  of  this  class  of  forage  crops  which  they 
ought  to,  from  the  standpoint  of  self-interest,  no 
limit  can  be  set  to  the  possible  increase  in  live  stock 
and  live  stock  products.  More  especially  will  this  be 
true  when  they  give  that  attention  also  to  the  grow- 
ing of  soiling  and  fodder  crops  which  their  impor- 
tance demands.  In  those  encouraging  days  that  are 
drawing  near,  the  production  in  these  lines  that  will 
be  obtained  from  small  areas  would  astonish  many 
of  the  farmers  of  to-day.  And  the  increase  will  no 
less  apply  to  the  quantity  than  to  the  quality  of  the 
product,  because  of  the  suitable  character  of  the  food 
furnished,  because  of  its  seasonableness  and  because 
of  its  abundance.  When  nearly  one  hundred  sheep 
can  be  pastured  from  the  closing  days  of  April  to  the 
opening  days  of  November  on  ten  acres  of  such 
forage,  as  was  done  in  1897  at  the  Minnesota  Uni- 
versity experiment  farm,  the  possibilities  in  live  stock 
production  in  our  republic  light  up  with  a  peculiar 
brightness.  When  it  is  remembered  that  the  soil  was 
sandy,  that  the  subsoil  was  sand  or  gravel  or  a  mix- 
ture of  the  two,  that  the  land  had  been  but  feebly 
fertilized,  the  brightness  grows  more  radiant.  And 
when  it  is  called  to  mind  that  10.33  tons  of  cured 
fodder  and  10.39 tons  °f  soiling  food  were  also  taken 


FORAGE    CROPS.  7 

from  the  same  ten  acres  during  the  growing  period 
of  the  year  mentioned,  and  that  much  unused  forage 
was  plowed  under  as  green  manure,  the  firmament 
of  possible  production  becomes  all  ablaze  with  prom- 
ise. The  first  to  look  at  those  happy  indications  will 
probably  be  the  first  to  engage  in  growing  forage 
crops. 

Plants  Discussed. — The  plants  discussed  in  the 
book  include  those  which  can  be  grown  for  forage 
in  any  part  of  the  tillable  areas  of  the  United  States 
and  Canada,  grasses  excepted.  Some  varieties,  how- 
ever, but  little  known,  or  of  only  local  value,  are 
doubtless  not  included.  The  attempt  has  been  made 
to  classify  or  group  them  in  the  hope  of  rendering 
the  discussion  more  simple  and  concise.  But  in  the 
absence  of  a  guide,  it  is  possible  that  some  exception 
may  be  taken  to  the  classification  adopted.  It  is 
based  largely  on  family  relationships  and,  to  some 
extent,  on  similarity  of  treatment  required  in  grow- 
ing them. 

In  discussing  the  various  plants  considered,  it 
has  been  the  aim  to  give  them  space  in  the  order  of 
their  relative  importance.  But  it  was  not  in  all 
instances  found  practicable  to  do  so,  and  for  the 
reason  that  the  relative  importance  of  several  of 
these  plants  has  not  yet  been  determined.  Experi- 
ence in  growing  them  has  also  been  so  limited  that 
some  time  must  yet  elapse  before  such  experience  will 
be  forthcoming.  In  the  judgment  of  the  writer,  a 
great  future  awaits  the  growing  of  vetches  for 
forage  and  soiling  food  in  our  country,  but  at  the 
present  time  the  growth  of  these  crops  is  greatly 
circumscribed.  Their  adaptation,  therefore,  to  cer- 
tain localities  is,  in  the  meantime,  a  matter  of  con- 


8  FORAGE    CROPS. 

jecture  rather  than  one  of  fact.    And  the  same  may 
be  said  of  certain  other  crops. 

In  addition  to  the  various  plants  that  are  discussed 
in  the  book,  a  chapter  is  written  on  succession  in 
forage  crops,  and  also  one  on  sheep  pastures  at  the 
Minnesota  University  experiment  farm.  In  the 
latter  an  exemplification  is  given  of  what,  is  advo- 
cated in  the  book. 


CHAPTER  II. 

INDIAN  CORN  OR  MAIZE. 

Indian  corn  (Zea  Mays)  is  one  of  the  greatest 
food  plants  that  was  ever  bestowed  on  any  country. 
It  is  indigenous  to  this  continent,  and  can  be  grown, 
in  one  or  the  other  of  its  forms,  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  continent  capable  of  maturing  cereals.  There  is 
probably  no  other  plant  at  the  present  time  that  pro- 
duces more  food  for  man  and  beast,  and  that  is  sus- 
ceptible of  being  grown  under  so  great  a  variety  of 
conditions. 

Corn  is  of  many  varieties.  They  run  up  into 
the  hundreds,  and  the  number  of  varieties  is  sure  to 
be  increased.  It  is  well  that  it  is  so,  for  in  this  way 
new  kinds  can  be  produced  with  special  adaptation 
to  the  needs  of  the  respective  regions  in  which  they 
are  to  be  grown.  While  new  varieties  are  thus  being 
evolved,  established  varieties  are  continually  being 
introduced  into  sections  where  they  had  not  been 
grown  hitherto,  and  in  these  sections  they  are  being 
acclimatized ;  hence  we  can  confidently  hope  that  in 
the  near  future  almost  every  part  of  America  that 
can  mature  grain  crops  will  be  possessed  of  those 
varieties  of  corn  best  adapted  to  its  needs. 

Corn  varies  exceedingly  in  its  habits  of  growth. 
Some  kinds  grow  only  to  the  hight  of  a  few  inches 
from  the  ground.  Other  varieties  grow  to  the 
hight  of  twelve  feet  and  more.  Some  varieties  pro- 
duce only  one  stalk  and  but  one  or  two  ears.  Other 

9 


IO  FORAGE    CROPS. 

kinds  produce  several  stalks  and  bear  a  number  of 
ears.  Some  kinds  produce  but  few  leaves  and  much 
grain,  other  varieties  grow  many  leaves  and  but  little 
grain.  Some  are  sweet,  others  much  less  so.  Some 
are  flint  and  some  are  dent,  and  others  are  hybrid,  as 
it  were,  between  these.  Some  kinds  mature  under 
ninety  days,  other  varieties  require  many  months  to 
complete  their  growth.  Various  other  distinctions 
appertain  to  the  multi-form  varieties  of  this  food 
product.  Verily,  their  name  is  legion. 

At  one  time  corn  was  grown  chiefly  for  the 
grain  product,  but  it  is  now  grown  more  and  more 
to  provide  soiling  food  and  fodder.  It  is  not  improb- 
able that,  ere  many  years  shall  pass,  the  area  of  corn 
fed  green  and  in  the  cured  form  unhusked,  will  much 
exceed  the  area  that  will  be  husked.  Notwithstand- 
ing the  rapid  increase  in  the  growing  of  corn  for  soil- 
ing, for  ensilage  and  for  fodder  to  be  fed  in  the 
autumn  and  wrinter,  the  idea  of  growing  corn  for 
pasture  does  not  seem  to  have  made  an  impression 
on  the  mind  of  the  corn  growers  of  this  country. 
When  the  author  sought  information  on  this  point, 
in  1894,  prior  to  taking  up  the  work  of  experiment- 
ing in  growing  corn  for  sheep  pasture,  none  could  be 
found.  It  may  be  that  the  search  was  too  narrow 
and  restricted,  but  the  fact  stated  will  make  it  clear 
that  at  that  time  information  on  the  point  at  issue 
was  not  plentiful.  It  is  of  this  particular  feature  of 
corn  production  that  the  present  chapter  will  treat. 
A  view  of  sheep  pasturing  on  first  growth  of  corn 
and  rape  at  the  Minnesota  University  experiment 
farm  is  seen  in  Fig.  2. 

While  it  is  more  than  probable  that  corn  will 
never  become  generally  popular  as  a  pasture  for 


INDIAN    CORN    OR    MAIZE. 


II 


II 


II 


12  FORAGE    CROPS. 

other  classes  of  domestic  animals  than  sheep,  never- 
theless there  are  circumstances  under  which  it  may 
be  fittingly  grown  to  furnish  grazing  for  cattle.  In 
the  upper  Mississippi  basin  and  the  country  lying 
still  further  north,  grasses  are  much  prone  to  lose 
their  succulence  in  the  early  summer,  and  frequently 
they  do  not  regain  it  again  the  same  year.  In  these 
areas  much  wheat  is  grown  from  year  to  year  on  the 
same  land.  As  a  result,  the  lands  become  foul,  and 
must  be  occasionally  summer  fallowed  to  clean  them. 
It  is  while  summer  fallowing  the  land  that  corn  may 
be  thus  grown  to  provide  pasture  for  cattle  or  horses 
not  at  work.  While  the  cattle  are  grazing  the  corn 
much  of  it  will  be  broken  down  and  fouled,  so  as  to 
be  unfit  for  food.  Notwithstanding,  much  pasture 
relatively  can  be  thus  furnished  per  acre.  And  when 
the  plow  immediately  follows  the  grazing,  as  it  ought 
to,  the  uneaten  portion  of  the  corn  plowed  under  will 
very  materially  increase  the  power  of  the  land  to  hold 
i  moisture  during  the  years  following.  The  land  will 
thus  be  cleaned  and  supplied  with  humus  in  the  one 
season,  and  much  pasture  will  have  been  secured  at 
no  added  cost,  other  than  that  of  the  seed.  This 
method  of  growing  corn  forage  is  applicable  to  all 
lands  that  are  to  be  summer  fallowed,  wherever  they 
may  be  located. 

But  it  is  in  providing  pasture  for  sheep  that  the 
best  results  are  obtained  from  growing  corn  forage. 
At  the  Minnesota  University  experiment  station  the 
tests  that  have  been  made  thus  far  in  growing  corn, 
alone  or  in  combination  with  other  forage  plants,  to 
provide  food  for  sheep,  have  been  decidedly  encour- 
aging. Further  reference  will  be  made  to  these  experi- 
ments in  the  closing  chapter.  The  waste  in  pasturing 


INDIAN    CORN    OR    MAIZE.  13 

corn  with  sheep  is  very  little,  as  compared  with  the 
waste  in  pasturing  it  with  cattle.  And,  in  providing 
pasture  for  this  class  of  live  stock,  it  may  be  success- 
fully grown  wherever  sheep  are  kept  in  the  arable 
portions  of  the  United  States  and  Canada. 

The  greatest  obstacle  in  the  way  of  growing 
corn  for  pasture  lies  in  the  cost  of  the  seed,  which  in 
some  seasons  is  a  considerable  item.  But  this  cost  is 
offset  in  the  abundance  of  the  pasture  furnished,  and 
in  its  timeliness. 

Distribution. — Corn  can  be  grown  successfully 
for  forage  in  any  part  of  the  United  States  that  is 
susceptible  of  cultivation.  As  would  naturally  be 
expected,  some  sections  are  much  more  favorable 
than  others  to  its  production ;  but  there  is  no  state  in 
the  Union  in  which  at  least  one  crop  of  pasture  can- 
not be  grown  every  season,  and  in  some  of  the  states 
two  or  more  crops  can  be  grown  in  succession.  The 
states  included  in  what  is  known  as  the  corn  belt  have 
a  most  decided  advantage  in  growing  corn  for  the 
grain  product;  but  in  growing  it  as  forage,  the 
advantage  is  materially  lessened.  Since  a  corn  crop 
will  reach  a  stage  sufficiently  advanced  for  being  pas- 
tured off  in  from  six  to  ten  weeks  from  the  time  of 
sowing  the  seed,  according  to  the  weather,  the  period 
of  growth  is  quite  long  enough  to  admit  of  growing 
a  crop  of  corn  forage  as  far  north  as  Lake  Winnipeg. 
Corn  wants  heat  and  moisture  to  produce  it  quickly, 
and  in  nearly  all  the  tillable  portions  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada  there  is  enough  of  both  to  pro- 
duce a  maximum  crop  of  corn  that  will  become  suffi- 
ciently advanced  for  being  eaten  down  before  the 
coming  of  the  cool  weather  of  autumn. 

Inland  from  the  oceans,  the  average  heat  of  the 


14  FORAGE    CROPS. 

days  during  the  summer  months  is  not  much  less 
than  the  average  much  further  south ;  hence  corn 
grows  almost  as  quickly  at  that  period  in  the  north- 
ern states  as  in  the  states  included  in  the  lower 
Mississippi  basin.  But  in  the  states  that  lie 
along  the  northern  boundary,  the  whole  season 
of  growth  is  so  short  that  the  large  and  slow- 
maturing  varieties  of  corn  cannot  always  be  ripened 
in  the  areas  adjacent  to  the  Canadian  border. 
Nor  can  the  ripening  of  some  of  the  small  varieties 
always  be  depended  on.  But  there  is  always  time 
enough  to  grow  a  crop  of  corn  forage,  and  to  pasture 
it  off  before  it  is  liable  to  be  stricken  down  by  frost. 

In  the  northern  states  in  proximity  to  the  sea, 
both  east  and  west,  the  period  without  frost  is  longer 
than  with  the  states  inland,  but  the  summer  heat  is 
also  less,  more  especially  on  the  Pacific  side  of  the 
continent;  hence  the  growth  of  the  corn  is  much 
slower.  It  is  not  improbable  that  corn  sown  at  the 
proper  season  at  Duluth,  would  be  as  far  advanced 
in  six  to  eight  weeks  from  the  time  of  planting  as  the 
same  kind  of  corn  would  be  at  Puget  Sound  in  ten  to 
twrelve  weeks  from  the  time  of  planting. 

At  St.  Paul,  Minn.,  there  is  ample  time  to  grow 
two  crops  of  corn  to  provide  forage  in  succession  on 
the  same  land  in  the  average  season.  In  the  Gulf 
states,  therefore,  there  should  be  ample  time  to  grow 
as  many  more  crops  in  succession  within  the  year, 
providing  ample  moisture  is  present.  Hence,  in  this 
way  in  the  "sunny  south"  a  very  large  quantity  of 
corn  forage  could  be  obtained  in  one  season  from  a 
piece  of  land. 

In  portions  of  the  semi-arid  region  adjacent  to 
the  Rocky  mountains  on  the  eastern  side,  corn  forage 


INDIAN     CORN    OR    MAIZE.  15 

can  assuredly  be  grown  and  turned  to  good  account. 
The  reference  here  is  to  much  of  the  tillable  land  in 
the  region  named  that  cannot  be  supplied  with  irri- 
gating waters.  Some  moisture  is  precipitated  on 
these  lands  every  winter  and  spring.  Now,  if  the 
land  has  been  plowed  in  the  autumn  previously,  and 
if  pains  is  taken  to  so  stir  the  surface  of  the  ground 
in  the  early  spring  that  the  ground  moisture  will  not 
escape  by  evaporation  until  the  season  has  come  for 
corn  planting,  the  moisture  thus  retained  in  the  soil 
is  likely  to  grow  a  good  crop  of  corn  forage.  If  not 
eaten  off  when  grown,  it  will  cure  on  the  ground 
when  the  moisture  fails;  but  still  it  will  provide 
much  food. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Corn  for  forage  may  be 
given  any  place  in  the  rotation.  First,  it  may  with 
propriety  be  made  to  follow  a  cereal  crop  that  has 
been  grown  on  foul  land  which  requires  to  be 
cleaned.  Or,  second,  it  may  follow  a  hay  or  pasture 
crop  when  the  presence  of  vegetable  matter  in  the 
soil  is  an  important  consideration.  Or,  third,  it  may 
with  peculiar  fitness  be  grown  as  a  catch  crop.  When 
grown  as  a  catch  crop,  it  may  come  after  rye  that  has 
just  been  pastured  off ;  after  any  kind  of  spring  grain 
that  may  have  failed  to  grow ;  after  a  stand  of  grass 
pastured  off  early,  but  that  is  not  good  enough  to 
retain ;  after  winter  oats,  or  crimson  clover  that  has 
been  eaten  clown  or  harvested ;  or,  where  the  season 
is  long  enough,  it  may  follow  rape  eaten  down.  There 
may  also  be  instances  when  it  would  be  prudent  to 
sow  corn  again,  although  the  principle  of  thus  grow- 
ing two  crops  upon  the  same  land  in  succession  is 
not  a  good  one.  And  it  may,  with  much  propriety, 
be  sown  on  the  bare  fallow. 


1 6  FORAGE    CROPS. 

The  crops  that  should  immediately  follow  corn 
sown  for  pasture  will  depend  somewhat  on  the  fact 
as  to  whether  other  plants  have  been  grown  with  the 
corn  and,  to  some  extent,  on  the  character  of  the 
plants  so  grown.  When  the  corn  is  sown  alone,  it 
may  fitly  be  followed  the  same  season  with  winter 
rye  and  rape  to  furnish  fall  pasture,  or  with  crimson 
clover  or  winter  wheat,  according  to  the  locality.  But 
it  will  not  avail  to  sow  these  crops  unless  there  is 
sufficient  moisture  in  the  soil  to  sprout  the  seed.  A 
crop  of  corn  growing  thickly,  as  for  pasture,  is 
mighty  to  pump  water  out  of  the  soil.  When  sown 
with  such  crops  as  rape,  cowpeas  or  vetches,  these 
crops  will  furnish  more  or  less  pasture  after  the  corn 
has  been  eaten  down.  The  amount  of  the  pasture 
thus  furnished  will,  of  course,  be  largely  dependent 
upon  the  amount  of  moisture  that  falls  late  in  the 
season.  The  natural  order  the  next  year  will  be  a 
grain  crop  where  some  crop  has  not  been  sown  after 
the  corn  that  is  to  live  through  the  winter. 

Soil. — The  soil  best  suited  to  growing  corn  for 
pasture  will  be  much  the  same  as  that  best  suited  to 
growing  corn  for  other  uses,  that  is  to  say,  it  will  be 
a  deep,  rich,  mild,  moist,  friable  loam.  If  well  sup- 
plied with  humus,  the  condition  will  be  further 
improved.  The  decaying  humus  furnishes  readily 
available  plant  food  and  also  much  increases  the 
power  of  the  soil  to  hold  moisture.  Stiff  clay  soils 
may  be  made  to  produce  strong  crops  of  corn  when 
the  season  is  favorable  and  when  the  plants  get  a 
good  start,  but  it  is  usually  at  an  expenditure  of 
much  labor  in  preparing  the  land.  Moreover,  the 
corn  grows  slowly  on  these,  and  in  a  dry  season  it  is 
not  likely  to  prove  a  success.  Light,  sandy  soils  are 


INDIAN    CORN    OR    MAIZE.  IJ 

not  good,  unless  they  have  been  artificially  enriched. 
The  same  is  true  of  gravelly  soils  low  in  fertility,  and 
when  these  poor  soils  lie  on  a  subsoil  of  sand  or 
gravel,  the  condition  is  still  less  hopeful.  And,  if  it 
should  become  dry,  it  is  still  further  aggravated. 
Peat  soils  are  not  good  in  a  dry  season.  Muck  soils 
are  excellent  when  moist,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the 
average  dark  colored  soils  of  the  prairie  and  of  the 
gray  soils  of  the  Rocky  mountain  region.  Hardpan 
subsoils  that  come  near  the  surface  are  not  good. 
They  prevent  the  corn  roots  from  getting  down  into 
the  soil,  and  corn  naturally  ransacks  the  soil  for  food, 
both  near  the  surface  and  down  from  it.  Subsoils  in 
which  the  water  table  lies  quite  near  the  surface  are 
not  good,  since  they  hinder  the  downward  course  of 
the  roots;  nor  will  corn  grow  in  saturated  surface 
soils.  Mild  clay  subsoils  are  considered  the  best, 
since  the  moisture  does  not  filter  too  quickly  through 
them,  and  the  roots  of  the  corn  can  easily  penetrate 
into  them  in  search  of  food. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — When  preparing  the  soil 
for  corn  that  is  to  be  sown  for  pasture,  the  aim  should 
be  to  secure  a  deep,  firm,  finely  pulverized,  moist  and 
clean  seed  bed.  Sometimes,  as,  for  instance,  when 
the  ground  is  plowed  the  autumn  previously,  all  these 
conditions  can  be  secured.  At  other  times  some  of 
them  only  can  be  reached,  owing  to  the  too  limited 
period  for  giving  it  the  necessary  cultivation.  When 
the  ground  is  plowed  in  the  autumn,  the  plowing 
should  be  deep.  It  should  be  deep  to  enable  the 
young  roots  and  rootlets  of  the  corn  to  penetrate  it 
easily  during  the  earlier  stages  of  growth  and  to  give 
the  soil  power  to  retain  more  moisture  near  the  sur- 
face. And  the  aim  should  be  to  plow  it  in  the  fall, 

2 


1 8  FORAGE    CROPS. 

that  time  may  be  given  for  the  upturned  soil  to 
become  warmer  than  it  would  be  if  spring  plowed, 
through  the  influence  of  the  sun  shining  on  it  and  of 
the  warm  rain  penetrating  it.  Second,  to  give  time 
for  weathering  influences,  as  that  of  frost,  to  operate 
upon  it,  so  that  inert  fertility  will  be  unlocked  and 
made  available.  Third,  that  the  seed  bed  will  be 
given  time  to  regain  its  former  density.  And,  fourth, 
that  ample  time  may  be  given  to  sprout  the  weeds  on 
the  surface  before  sowing  the  corn.  This  can  be 
done  by  running  the  harrow  or  cultivator  over  the 
surface  of  the  soil  as  soon  as  the  ground  is  dry,  and 
by  using  the  harrow  again  and  again  on  the  same 
soil  as  often  as  the  weeds  have  sprouted  in  consid- 
erable numbers.  It  is  very  important  that  this  shall 
be  done  even  on  fallow  land  that  is  to  be  sown  with 
corn.  In  addition  to  the  cleaning  of  the  land,  the 
soil  moisture  will  be  retained  in  it.  But  in  some 
localities,  especially  those  in  which  the  soils  are  essen- 
tially clay,  and  where  the  winters  are  mild  and  rainy, 
it  may  be  unwise  to  plow  the  land  in  the  fall,  lest  it 
assume  an  impacted  and  clammy  condition  that 
would  seriously  interfere  with  and  hinder  the  opera- 
tions of  tillage.  Under  these  conditions  the  land 
should  be  plowed  as  early  as  possible  in  the  spring 
and  subsequently  managed  like  fall  plowed  land  up 
to  the  time  of  sowing  the  corn. 

When  the  corn  is  to  follow  rye  or  crimson  clover 
or  winter  oats,  or  any  other  crop  that  has  been  grazed 
off  in  the  spring,  or  grain  that  has  been  sown  and 
failed  to  make  a  stand,  the  depth  of  the  plowing 
should  be  regulated  by  the  composition  of  the  soil, 
its  present  condition  as  to  moisture,  and  the  general 
character  of  the  climate.  The  more  clay  the  soil  con- 


INDIAN    CORN    OR    MAIZE.  19 

tains,  so  long  as  it  may  be  classed  as  a  loam  and  not 
a  clay  soil,  the  moister  its  condition.  The  more 
humid  the  climate  and  the  more  frequent  the  show- 
ers, the  more  deeply  may  the  land  be  plowed,  and 
vice  versa. 

When  light  and  springy  soils  are  plowed  deeply 
in  the  spring,  they  lie  so  loosely  upon  themselves  that 
there  is  much  loss  by  surface  evaporation.  The  same 
is  true  of  these  soils,  but  in  a  less  degree,  when  they 
are  plowed  shallow  in  the  spring.  And  the  drier  the 
climate,  the  more  aggravated  does  this  condition 
become.  As  soon,  therefore,  as  such  lands  are 
plowed  in  the  spring,  they  should  be  at  once  rolled. 
The  aim  should  be  to  roll  them  the  same  day  that  the 
plowing  is  done.  The  pressure  of  the  roller  lessens 
the  surface  evaporation.  But  the  rolled  surface 
should  ere  long  be  followed  by  the  harrow,  to  hinder 
the  soil  from  lifting  with  the  wind,  as  it  does  in  cer- 
tain sections  of  the  prairie,  and  to  create  a  more  per- 
fect dust  blanket,  that  will  hinder  the  escape  of 
ground  moisture.  Cloddy  surfaces  should  be  made 
fine  by  the  use  of  the  roller  and  harrow. 

The  best  time  for  applying  fertilizers  will  be 
dependent  upon  conditions,  as,  for  instance,  the  sea- 
son of  the  year  at  which  the  plowing  is  done.  When 
the  land  is  plowed  in  the  fall,  farmyard  manure 
should  then  also  be  applied,  when  on  hand.  It  should 
be  plowed  under,  except  in  leechy  soils,  and  where 
the  rainfall  is  heavy  in  winter.  On  such  soils  it 
should  be  applied  on  the  surface,  and  in  the  com- 
posted or  reduced  form  when  spread  on  fall  plowed 
s-  >il.  It  may  then  be  incorporated  with  the  soil  in  the 
spring  by  the  aid  of  the  disc  or  some  other  form  of 
cultivator.  When  the  land  is  spring  plowed,  the 


2O  FORAGE    CROPS. 

manure  may  be  spread  in  the  winter  or  at  such  other 
time  as  may  be  convenient,  up  to  the  season  when 
the  land  is  to  be  plowed.  When  moisture  is  abun- 
dant, fresh  manure  may  be  applied,  providing  it  is 
buried  to  a  sufficient  depth  and  with  sufficient  care  to 
prevent  it  from  interfering  with  the  proper  sowing 
of  the  seed.  But  in  dry  climates,  fresh  and  long 
manure  should  not  be  thus  buried  in  the  spring,  lest 
it  should  keep  the  land  so  open  and  loose  that  the 
manure  will  not  decay. 

Potash  as  a  commercial  fertilizer  may  be  applied 
any  time  previous  to  the  sowing  of  the  crop,  phos- 
phoric acid  shortly  before  or  when  the  crop  is  sown, 
and  nitrogen  when  the  crop  is  sown  or  subsequently, 
but  before  the  plants  have  reached  an  advanced  stage 
of  growth.  The  first  may  be  incorporated  with  the 
soil  as  may  be  convenient.  The  second  should  be 
incorporated  with  the  surface  soil,  and  the  third 
should  be  similarly  incorporated,  or,  what  would  be 
preferable,  sown  upon  the  surface. 

Solving. — The  seed  should  not  be  sown  until 
reasonable  danger  from  frost  is  past,  until  that  sea- 
son has  arrived  when  fairly  warm  weather  may  be 
looked  for,  or  until  the  ground  has  become  warm. 
A  slight  frost,  however,  that  only  nips  off  the  tops 
of  the  blades  may  not  work  very  serious  harm.  Corn 
for  pasture  may  be  sown,if  desired,  a  few  days  earlier 
than  corn  grown  for  other  uses.  Owing  to  the  thick 
character  of  the  sowing,  though  a  proportion  of  the 
plants  should  fail,  they  will  not  be  seriously  missed 
from  the  crop.  And  it  may  be  sown  far  on  into  the 
summer,  according  to  climatic  and  other  conditions. 
As  to  the  mode  of  sowing  corn  for  pasture, 
something  will  depend  upon  the  facilities  at  hand 


INDIAN     CORN    OR    MAIZE.  21 

for  sowing  it,  and  something  upon  the  combination 
of  the  seeds  sown  along  with  it.  Sowing  it  broad- 
cast, however,  is  to  be  deprecated,  since  some  of  the 
seed  will  not  be  covered  by  the  harrow.  And  if  a 
shower  of  rain  should  fall  soon  after  the  seed  is 
sown,  much  of  it  would  be  washed  bare,  thus  increas- 
ing the  percentage  of  the  seed  that  would  perish 
from  exposure  to  -air  and  sun.  And  when  the  harrow 
was  run  over  the  crop  subsequent  to  the  sprouting  of 
the  corn,  many  of  the  young  plants  would  be  dis- 
turbed in  their  growth,  if  not,  indeed,  killed  outright. 
Nevertheless,  such  harrowing  may  be  done  with 
profit  when  a  plentiful  supply  of  seed  has  been  sown. 
The  aim  should  be  to  plant  the  seed  with  the  grain 
drill  deeply  in  loose-lying  soils,  as  deeply  as  three 
inches,  and  less  deeply  in  heavier  loam  soils. 

When  cowpeas  or  vetches  are  planted  along 
with  the  corn,  the  seed  should  first  be  mixed  with 
that  of  the  corn.  When  rape  is  sown,  it  may  be 
broadcasted  before  the  corn  is  sown.  The  drill  tubes 
are  likely  to  give  it  sufficient  covering  when  the  corn 
is  being  planted.  Or  it  may  be  sown  just  when  the 
first  blades  of  the  corn  appear,  and  covered  with  the 
harrow.  The  first  method  is  preferable  where  the 
corn  is  to  be  given  more  than  one  harrowing.  But 
in  such  instances,  the  rape  seed  should  be  sown 
thickly,  to  allow  for  the  loss  of  plants  that  will  result 
from  using  the  harrow. 

The  amount  of  seed  to  sow  will  depend  upon 
the  soil,  upon  the  kind  of  corn,  and  upon  the  other 
kinds  of  forage  sown  along  with  the  corn.  Soils  low 
in  fertility  should  be  given  a  thick  seeding  to  increase 
the  sum  total  of  the  forage  produced.  Soils  very 
rich  should  also  be  sown  very  thickly,  to  produce 


OF  THK 

UNIVERSITY 


22  FORAGE    CROPS. 

forage  less  coarse  than  would  result  from  thin  sow- 
ing. And  intermediate  quantities  of  seed  should  be 
sown  on  intermediate  soils.  Varieties  of  corn  with 
a  large  seed  kernel  should  be  sown  more  thickly  than 
those  with  a  small  seed  kernel.  And  those  kinds  that 
are  naturally  of  a  leafy  habit  of  growth  should  be 
sown  more  thinly  than  those  opposite  in  character. 
The  larger  the  proportion  of  other  seeds  sown 
along  with  the  corn,  the  less  will  be  the  proportion 
of  the  seed  corn  required.  When  corn  is  sown  to 
provide  forage  without  intermixture  of  other  seeds, 
the  quantity  of  seed  to  be  used  will  range  from  one 
to  three  bushels  per  acre.  When  sown  in  combina- 
tion with  other  forage  plants,  the  proportion  of  corn 
may  be  reduced  as  low,  in  some  instances,  as  one- 
half  bushel  per  acre.  Equal  quantities  of  cowpeas 
and  corn  sown  together  would  answer  well  in  some 
localities.  The  proportions  of  two  parts  corn  and 
one  of  vetches  would  answer  well  in  other  localities, 
and  Dwarf  Essex  rape  seed  sown  with  the  corn,  or 
with  the  corn  and  vetches,  at  the  rate  of  two  and 
three  pounds  of  the  seed  per  acre,  should  further 
improve  the  pasture.  And  when  the  corn  had  all 
disappeared,  in  consequence  of  the  grazing,  the  other 
plants  would,  under  certain  conditions,  make  a  good 
second  growth.  But  the  proportion  of  the  seed  of 
the  respective  plants  used  that  would  best  meet  the 
requirements  of  each  locality  can  be  fully  ascertained 
only  by  actual  test.  A  field  of  second  growth  of 
rape  sown  with  corn  is  seen  in  Fig.  3. 

Cultivation. — When  the  corn  is  sown  alone,  it 
will  be  greatly  benefited  by  harrowing  it  judiciously 
at  least  two  or  three  times  from  the  period  of  sowing 
the  corn  and  the  period  when  it  shall  have  attained 


INDIAN     CORN     OR    MAIZE. 


24  FORAGE    CROPS. 

the  hight  of  four  to  six  inches.  By  judicious  har- 
rowing is  meant,  using  a  light  harrow,  adjusting  the 
teeth  to  a  backward  slant  that  will  hinder  them  from 
cutting  too  deeply  and  too  erectly,  and  using  it  when 
the  land  is  not  overmoist.  When  the  harrow  teeth 
are  used  in  an  erect  position,  they  tear  out  too  much 
of  the  corn.  As  soon  as  the  seed  has  been  sown,  the 
roller  may,  in  nearly  all  instances,  be  made  to  follow 
the  drill  with  much  advantage.  It  presses  the  par- 
ticles of  soil  more  closely  around  the  seed,  lessens 
the  degree  of  the  exposure  of  the  seeds  to  the  light, 
and  lessens  the  drying  out  of  the  soil;  hence  the 
quick  germination  of  the  corn  will  be  greatly  facil- 
itated, unless  where  moisture  is  abundant.  On  soils 
that  lift  with  the  wind,  the  harrow  should  soon 
follow  the  roller,  and  in  any  case  the  crop  should  be 
harrowed  before  the  corn  has  appeared.  The  other 
harrowings,  of  course,  come  later.  But  when  other 
plants  are  sown  with  the  corn,  one  harrowing  given 
before  the  plants  are  up  may  be  all  that  can  be  given 
without  hazard  to  the  plants. 

Pasturing. — When  pasturing  corn  with  cattle  or 
with  sheep,  it  should  be  allowed  to  make  a  good 
growth  before  the  animals  are  turned  in  to  graze  it 
down,  as  it  does  not  sprout  up  again.  The  grazing 
should  commence  when  the  plants  are  from  eighteen 
to  twenty-four  inches  high.  But  where  the  promise 
of  forage  is  so  abundant  that  the  supply  is  likely  to 
be  quite  beyond  the  requirements  of  the  live  stock 
that  are  to  be  grazed  upon  the  corn,  the  pasturing 
should  begin  somewhat  earlier,  unless  in  instances  in 
which  the  residuum  of  waste  from  the  pasturing 
should  be  looked  upon  as  an  important  factor  when 
plowed  under  for  improving  the  land.  Care  should 


INDIAN    CORN    OR    MAIZE.  25 

be  taken  not  to  turn  the  animals  in  to  graze  when 
they  are  hungry,  at  least  at  the  beginning  of  the  pas- 
turing, on  the  principle  that  sudden  changes  of  diet 
are  not  good.  But  corn  is  not  so  much  liable  to  pro- 
duce bloating  as  some  other  kinds  of  green  forage, 
nor  should  the  animals  be  pastured  upon  it  when  it 
is  wet,  as  then  they  foul  the  feed  and  impact  the  land 
too  much  with  their  treading,  and  in  the  case  of 
sheep  the  fleeces  would  become  more  or  less  satu- 
rated with  water. 

As  already  intimated,  there  will  be  much  waste 
from  treading  by  cattle,  so  much  that  it  would  not 
seem  profitable  to  graze  them  on  corn,  unless  when 
the  residuum  of  waste  forage  to  be  plowed  under  just 
after  the  pasturing,  is  looked  upon  as  an  important 
factor.  But  when  sheep  are  pastured  upon  corn,  the 
waste  is  not  nearly  so  great.  They  do  not  break 
down  nearly  so  much  of  the  corn  as  cattle,  and  much 
of  what  is  broken  down  they  will  consume  in  the 
cured  form. 

Observations. — The  chief  strength  of  corn  as  a 
forage  plant  lies,  first,  in  the  quickness  with  which  it 
will  grow;  second,  in  the  large  amount  of  forage 
which  it  produces;  third,  in  the  succession  of  the 
crops  that  can  be  grown  the  same  season ;  fourth,  in 
the  combinations  in  which  it  may  be  grown;  and, 
fifth,  in  its  power  to  grow  under  dry  conditions.  Its 
weakness  as  a  forage  plant  lies,  first,  in  the  cost  of 
the  seed;  second,  in  the  fact  that  it  will  not  grow 
again  wrhen  grazed  off ;  and,  third,  in  the  considera- 
ble proportion  of  the  waste  when  grazed  off  by  cattle. 

2. — The  work  of  grazing  corn  as  a  pasture  must 
be  regarded  as  being  only  in  the  experimental  stage. 
And  it  would  seem  to  be  important  that  the  combina- 


26  FORAGE    CROPS. 

tions  in  which  it  can  best  be  grown,  as  adapted  to  dif- 
ferent localities,  should  be  made  the  subject  of  care- 
ful experiment  in  the  near  future. 

3. — It  is  at  least  possible  that  in  the  dry  regions 
of  the  northwest,  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  some 
small  varieties  of  corn,  as,  for  instance,  squaw  corn, 
may  yet  be  grown  to  provide  what  may  be  termed 
finishing  or  fattening  food  for  range  sheep  grown  on 
the  adjacent  lands.  Squaw  corn  will  mature  any- 
where within  the  area  named.  Although  possessed 
of  a  low,  bantam-like  habit  of  growth,  it  branches 
out  considerably,  and  produces  much  grain  in  pro- 
portion to  the  stalk.  It  may  be  best  grown  on  fall 
plowed  lands,  managed  in  the  spring  with  a  view  to 
conserving  moisture.  It  should  then  be  sown  with 
the  grain  drill,  care  being  taken  to  put  the  rows  not 
so  distant  as  when  planting  larger  varieties  of  corn, 
and  to  give  the  crop  proper  cultivation.  The  sheep 
should  then  be  turned  in  upon  it  in  a  prudently  cau- 
tious manner  at  first,  to  graze  it  down  and  to  fatten 
upon  it  before  the  closing  in  of  the  winter.  In  the 
absence  of  conclusive  tests,  judgment  should  not  be 
pronounced  hastily  as  to  the  value  of  this  theory,  for 
in  practical  agriculture  we  can  never  be  quite  sure  of 
the  exact  value  of  a  reasonable  theory  until  it  has 
been  fairly  tried.  But  it  may  be  proper  to  mention 
here,  that  experiments  conducted  at  the  Minnesota 
University  experiment  farm,  but  not  yet  completed, 
have  proved  decidedly  encouraging  in  character. 

4. — The  pasturing  of  corn  stover  yet  standing 
where  it  grew,  is  to  be  deprecated.  Corn  stover,  as 
is  generally  known,  is  corn  from  which  the  ears  have 
been  removed.  It  is  to  be  deprecated,  because  of  the 
wastefulness  of  the  process.  The  stover  dries  so 


INDIAN     CORN     OR     MAIZE.  27 

much  after  maturity  that  a  great  deal  of  the  nutri- 
ment in  the  stalk  is  lost  before  the  corn  is  eaten. 
Because  of  this  overcuring,  the  palatability  of  the 
corn  is  greatly  lessened ;  hence  much  of  it  will  not  be 
consumed.  A  large  proportion  of  it  becomes  broken 
down  and  fouled,  which  causes  still  further  waste. 
And  the  cattle  are  oftentimes  required  to  graze 
upon  it  when  the  weather  is  unfavorable,  hence  there 
is  a  loss  from  thus  exposing  the  animals.  Of  course, 
it  is  better  to  pasture  the  corn  thus  than  not  to  pas- 
ture it  at  all.  But  the  stover  would  furnish  much 
more  food  if  it  were  harvested  and  fed  to  other  ani- 
mals as  needed.  The  prodigality  of  some  of  the 
western  farmers  of  this  country  finds  a  striking  illus- 
tration in  this  wasteful  method  of  handling,  or  rather 
not  handling,  corn  stover.  Each  acre  of  the  food,  if 
properly  utilized,  is  worth  as  much  as  an  acre  of 
average  timothy  hay. 


CHAPTER  III. 

SORGHUM. 

Sorghum  (S.  vulgare  saccharatum)  was  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States  from  China,  and  also 
from  South  Africa,  more  than  forty  years  ago.  For 
many  years  it  was  grown  only  for  the  syrup  made 
from  its  juices.  But  within  the  last  decade,  and  even 
for  a  longer  period,  considerable  attention  has  been 
given  to  growing  it  as  a  food  for  live  stock  in  certain 
centers  and  in  various  sections  of  the  country. 

It  is  a  wonderful  plant.  It  can  be  grown  to  pro- 
vide cane  for  making  syrup  in  every  state  in  the 
Union.  It  is  one  of  the  best  soiling  foods  that  we 
have.  It  furnishes  fodder  of  an  excellent  quality  for 
live  stock,  when  fed  in  the  autumn  and  winter, 
more  especially  the  early  winter,  arfd  it  is  one  of  the 
best  forage  plants  that  we  shall  ever  have.  The  seed 
of  sorghum  can  also  be  turned  to  good  account  as 
food  for  all  kinds  of  domestic  animals  kept  upon  the 
farm.  But  it  is  as  a  forage  plant  that  it  will  be  dis- 
cussed at  this  time.  Sorghum  grown  for  fodder  is 
seen  in  Fig.  4. 

Although  this  plant,  as  just  intimated,  has  hith- 
erto been  grown  chiefly  for  the  syrup  which  could  be 
extracted  from  it,  in  the  near  future  it  is  more  than 
probable  that  a  much  larger  area  will  be  grown  to 
furnish  food  for  live  stock  than  to  furnish  syrup.  In 
some  of  the  states  in  the  Mississippi  basin,  on  both 
sides  of  the  river,  in  the  Gulf  states  and  in  Texas, 

28 


SORGHUM. 


29 


fi 
i? 


30  FORQGE    CROPS. 

more  or  less  of  it  has  been  grown  for  years  to  provide 
forage  for  cattle  and  swine ;  but,  so  far  as  known  to 
the  author,  it  has  not  been  grown  until  recently  as 
forage  for  sheep;  and  yet  there  is  no  other  class  of 
live  stock  which  are  capable  of  turning  sorghum  pas- 
ture to  better  account.  During  the  winter  of  1893-4 
the  author  sought  diligently  for  information  as  to  the 
adaptability  of  sorghum  as  a  pasture  plant  for  sheep, 
but  found  none.  In  not  a  single  instance,  by  corre- 
spondence or  otherwise,  was  anyone  found  who  could 
give  a  line  of  information  as  to  the  value  of  sorghum 
for  sheep  pasture.  Doubtless,  there  were  those  who 
had  tried  it,  but  the  fact  just  stated  will  show  how 
little  was  known  at  that  time  as  to  the  value  of  this 
most  wonderful  forage  plant  in  providing  pasture 
for  sheep.  As  an  all-round  food  producing  plant 
corn  is  quite  ahead  of  sorghum,  but  as  a  forage  plant 
sorghum  is  quite  ahead  of  corn.  It  is  at  least  ques- 
tionable if  we  have  a  forage  plant  in  the  United 
States  that  is  so  well  adapted  for  being  grown  over 
so  wide  an  area. 

Sorghum  is  pre-eminently  a  summer  pasture. 
Blue  grass  and  various  other  grasses  slumber  during 
much  of  the  summer.  Medium  red  clover  languishes, 
especially  in  the  south,  where  midsummer  suns  wax 
warm.  Rape  becomes  crisp  and  faded  at  that  season, 
if  sown  early,  unless  under  exceptionally  favorable 
conditions  as  to  moisture.  Mammoth  clover  has 
done  its  work  for  the  year,  and  the  same  is  true  of 
alsike.  These  two  take  a  rest  after  harvest,  and  as 
a  pasture  in  the  autumn  they  are  like  the  deceitful 
water  brooks  that  have  dried.  Then  it  is  that  sor- 
ghum is  at  its  best.  Being  a  child  of  the  sun,  it  strikes 
its  roots  downward  and  pushes  its  leaves  upward  and 


SORGHUM.  31 

outward  through  all  the  hot  season,  thus  furnishing 
an  abundance  of  succulent  pasture  at  a  time  of 
the  year  when  it  cannot  so  well  be  obtained  from 
any  other  source. 

There  are  two  distinct  classes  of  sorghum, 
known  as  the  saccharine  and  the  non-saccharine, 
respectively.  This  classification  is  based  on  the  pres- 
ence of  sugar  in  considerable  quantities  in  the 
matured  cane  or  on  its  almost  entire  absence.  The  first 
of  these  only  will  be  discussed  in  the  present  chapter. 
Of  the  saccharine  sorghums  there  are  many  varieties, 
but  for  forage  uses  two  of  these  are  more  extensively 
grown  than  the  others.  These  are  the  Early  Amber 
and  the  Early  Orange.  The  former,  with  its  sub- 
variety,  the  Minnesota  Early  Amber,  is  grown  in  the 
northern  and  northwestern  states  to  the  almost 
entire  exclusion  of  other  varieties.  And  the  latter, 
with  what  is  probably  a  sub-variety,  the  Kansas 
Orange,  is  extensively  grown  in  the  south  and  south- 
west. Folgers  Early  is  also  a  favorite  in  growing 
forage,  but  it  also  is  grown  in  the  southwest  and 
south.  But  in  all-round  adaptation,  it  is  questionable 
if  any  of  the  other  varieties  excels  the  Early  Amber 
and  its  sub-variety  in  the  production  of  forage.  The 
Amber  varieties  are  hardy,  they  furnish  an  abundance 
of  leaves,  they  have  a  high  sugar  content,  and  they 
mature  earlier  than  most  other  varieties. 

\Yhen  sorghum  first  appears  above  the  surface 
of  the  ground,  it  is  a  tiny  plant  bearing  a  close  resem- 
blance to  foxtail  (Setaria  glauca),  or,  as  it  is  some- 
times called,  summer  grass  or  pigeon  grass.  It  grows 
slowly  at  first,  and  is  easily  pulled  out  or  injured  by 
treading  when  live  stock  graze  upon  it  at  too  early  a 
period.  But  after  it  has  reached  the  hight  of  several 


32  FORAGE    CROPS. 

inches,  it  grows  very  rapidly.  When  less  than  a  foot 
high,  sorghum  forage  is  a  mass  of  leaves,  and  makes 
a  decidedly  beautiful  appearing  forage  crop.  When 
a  foot  high  or  thereabouts,  it  joints  and  sends  up 
stems  or  canes  with  much  quickness.  In  grazing  it 
off  therefore,  especially  with  sheep,  it  is  important 
that  it  is  eaten  down  before  the  crop  has  reached  the 
stage  when  it  is  common  to  begin  to  cut  it  for  soiling, 
that  is  to  say,  while  it  is  not  yet  more  than  from  one 
to  two  feet  high.  When  grazed  down,  it  at  once 
springs  up  again.  The  pasture  is  likely  to  be  thicker 
in  the  second  growth  than  it  was  in  the  first, 
because  of  the  increased  number  of  sprouts  that 
spring  from  the  root. 

Sorghum  has  much  power  to  withstand  dry 
weather,  when  once  it  has  become  established.  It 
will  grow  under  certain  conditions  where  corn  would 
curl  in  the  leaf  and  shrivel  from  want  of  moisture. 
In  its  power  to  grow  under  dry  conditions  it  will 
rival  Kaffir  corn,  and  when  the  crop  has  become  so 
imperiled  through  long  continued  drouth  that  it 
shows  signs  of  languishing,  it  has  much  power  to 
revive  again  when  rain  falls. 

As  a  forage  plant  it  is  not  usually  grown  in  cul- 
tivation with  other  forage  plants,  and  for  the  reason, 
first,  that  when  sown  thickly  it  fully  occupies  the 
ground,  and,  second,  that  it  at  once  begins  to  grow 
again  when  eaten  down,  thus  rendering  it  unneces- 
sary to  sow  a  crop  along  with  the  sorghum  to  furnish 
forage  after  the  latter  has  been  grazed  off.  But 
some  forage  plants  may  be  sown  along  with  it  to  pro- 
vide a  variety  in  the  pasture.  These  will  be  referred 
to  again. 

Distribution. — There    is     probably    no    plant 


SORGHUM.  33 

grown  on  this  continent  that  has  a  wider  range  of 
distribution  than  sorghum.  It  can  be  grown  for 
forage  with  much  success  in  nearly  all  parts  of  the 
United  States  where  the  land  can  be  tilled.  And  in 
no  part  of  the  Union  where  crops  are  grown  can  it  be 
said  to  be  a  decided  failure.  It  can  also  be  grown 
with  more  or  less  of  success  in  every  portion  of 
Canada  that  has  been  disturbed  with  the  plowshare. 

Notwithstanding  this  wide  range  of  adaptation, 
there  are  certain  areas  where  its  mission  as  a  forage 
crop  will  be  vastly  more  important  than  in  other 
areas.  The  areas  which  will  be  most  benefited  by 
growing  sorghum  are  those  in  which  the  summer 
temperature  is  warm,  where  the  rainfall  is  fitful 
and  insufficient,  and  where  the  winters  are  mild 
enough  and  sufficiently  dry  to  admit  of  feeding  sor- 
ghum out  of  doors,  or  of  grazing  it  off  where  it  grew. 
And  the  areas  that  will  profit  the  least  by  its  growth 
are  those  with  much  moisture  and  comparatively  low 
summer  temperatures.  Moisture  is  of  course  not 
antagonistic  to  the  growth  of  sorghum.  On  the 
contrary,  it  is  favorable,  but  where  the  mean  tem- 
perature in  summer  is  low  the  sorghum  grows  too 
slowly.  And  cool  and  moist  climates  are  so  well 
adapted  to  the  abundant  production  of  grasses  and 
certain  other  forage  plants  that  in  these  sorghum 
pasture  is  much  less  needed. 

The  states  therefore  that  are  likely  to  profit 
most  by  the  growth  of  sorghum  for  forage  are  those 
that  lie  on  the  border  of  the  semi-range  country  to 
the  west,  as,  for  instance,  South  Dakota,  Nebraska, 
Kansas,  Oklahoma  and  Texas.  And  those  that  will 
profit  least  by  its  growth  are  those  parts  of  Wash- 
ington and  Oregon  that  lie  west  of  the  Cascades. 


34  FORAGE    CROPS. 

A  wonderful  field  lies  open  for  the  growth  of 
sorghum  in  all  the  states  which  border  on  the 
Mississippi  and  Ohio  rivers,  and  also  in  the 
lower  Atlantic  and  Gulf  states.  In  New  Eng- 
land and  the  adjacent  states  it  will  also  be  freely 
grown.  But  in  the  Rocky  mountain  states,  although 
it  has  a  mission,  it  is  less  important  than  that  of  their 
great  forage  plant,  alfalfa.  The  best  adaptation  for 
sorghum  pasture  in  Canada  is  found  in  southern 
Ontario,  but  it  will  also  grow  well  in  other  sections. 
And  the  least  adaptation  probably  will  be  found  for 
it  in  British  Columbia. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — The  place  given  to  sor- 
ghum in  the  rotation  will  be  much  the  same  as  that 
given  to  corn ;  hence  nearly  all  that  was  said  of  corn 
under  this  head  will  equally  apply  to  sorghum.  (See 
Page  15.)  Like  corn,  it  may  fitly  be  made  to  come 
after  a  cereal  crop  when  the  land  is  foul,  after  winter 
rye,  winter  oats,  rape  or  crimson  clover,  when  one 
or  the  other  of  these  has  been  pastured  off;  or,  in 
southern  latitudes,  after  a  crop  of  early  matured  mar- 
ket products.  Figure  5  shows  a  crop  of  sorghum  and 
rape,  the  third  crop  grown  on  the  land  for  the  season, 
\  and  Figure  6  a  crop  of  sorghum  and  rye.  The 
order  in  these  crops  was,  rye,  sorghum,  sorghum 
and  rape.  It  may  also  be  sown  as  a  catch  crop  on 
lands  that  are  being  summer  fallowed.  Sorghum 
pasture  should  in  a  sense  be  made  a  cleaning  crop; 
hence  it  may  best  be  followed  in  the  regular  rotation 
with  some  cereal.  But  when  a  succession  of  forage 
plants  is  wanted  in  the  rotation,  sorghum  may  be 
followed  with  winter  rye,  or  winter  oats. 

Soil. — The  soils  that   are   best   suited   to   the 
growth  of  corn  are  also  those  that  are,  in  the  main, 


SORGHUM. 


35 


36  FORAGE  CROPS. 

best  suited  to  the  growth  of  sorghum.  (See Page  16.) 
But  as  sorghum  has  greater  power  than  corn  to 
gather  food  from  the  soil,  it  is  not  so  necessary  to 
have  it  in  a  high  state  of  fertility^  And  yet  it  is  true 
of  sorghum,  as  of  corn,  that  the  return  in  the  crop 
will  usually  be  proportionate  to  the  richness  of  the 
land.  This  is  particularly  true  of  sorghum  forage. 
But  it  is  not  so  essential  in  growing  sorghum  that 
the  land  shall  be  well  stored  with  nitrogen  as  that  it 
shall  be  well  stored  with  phosphoric  acid  and  potash. 
The  idea  has  obtained  currency  that,  because  several 
crops  of  sorghum  have  been  grown  successively  on 
the  same  land  in  certain  instances,  that  sorghum  is 
not  hard  on  land.  That  simply  proves  that  these 
soils  possess  a  wonderful  adaptation  for  growing 
sorghum.  To  say  that  any  crop  which  produces 
grain,  other  than  a  legume,  is  not  hard  on  land  is 
simply  absurd.  But  since  sorghum  feeds  more  deeply 


than  corn  and,  moreover,  since  it  has  greater  power 
to  gather  food  in  the  soil  and  subsoil,  good  crops  of 
sorghum  may  be  grown  on  land  too  low  in  fertility 
to  produce  good  crops  of  corn.  The  best  soils  for  ' 
sorghum  are  free-working,  moist,  sandy  loams 
underlaid  with  a  mild  porous  clay  subsoil,  rich  in  the 
elements  of  phosphoric  acid  and  potash.  Humus 
soils  are  good,  but  not  so  good  relatively  as  for  corn. 
Hard  clays  lying  on  harder  subsoils  are  quite  unfit 
for  growing  sorghum.  This  plant  will  also  grow  on 
soils  possessed  of  more  or  less  of  alkali.  But,beyond 
a  certain  degree,  the  presence  of  this  element  would 
be  fatal  to  its  growth. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — It  is  even  more  important 
with  sorghum  than  with  corn  that  it  shall  be  sown  on 
land  thoroughly  pulverized  and  with  moisture  com- 


SORGHUM. 


37 


s 

75 

c 

I 

3 
C. 

,    » 

— '  3" 

r   3. 

'£•  n 


38  FORAGE    CROPS. 

ing  up  near  to  the  surface,  since  sorghum  plants 
are  more  delicate  when  young  than  corn  plants.  In 
order  to  clean  the  land,  therefore,  it  is  essential,  first, 
that  it  shall  be  plowed  in  the  fall  or  in  the  early 
spring,  and,  second,  that  it  shall  be  occasionally 
stirred  on  the  surface  with  harrow  or  cultivator  from 
the  opening  of  spring  until  the  sowing  of  the  seed. 
It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  longer  the  period 
between  the  dawn  of  spring  and  the  sowing  of  the 
seed,  the  better  is  the  opportunity  given  to  clean  the 
land.  And  that  this  process  may  be  secured  in  a 
more  complete  degree,  it  may  be  a  wise  plan  to  defer 
sowing  the  sorghum  for  a  week  or  two  or  even  for  a 
longer  period. 

But  when  sorghum  is  to  follow  a  crop  of  forage, 
as,  for  instance,  winter  rye,  crimson  clover  or  winter 
vetches,  there  will  not  be  sufficient  time  to  clean  the 
land  in  best  form  before  the  sowing  of  the  sorghum 
seed.  And  here,  also,  it  may  be  wise  in  some 
instances  to  defer  sowing  the  sorghum  immediately, 
that  opportunity  may  be  thus  given  to  secure  a  more 
perfect  degree  of  cleanness  in  the  land.  But  the 
seasons  are  in  many  places  too  short  to  admit  of  so 
doing,  and  in  many  other  places  they  are  too  dry.  In 
any  event,  as  soon  as  the  land  has  been  plowed  after 
one  of  these  pasture  crops,  it  should  be  at  once  rolled, 
to  keep  in  the  moisture.  And  before  the  seed  is 
sown  the  pulverization  of  the  soil  should  be  thor- 
ough. Too  much  care  cannot  be  taken  when  prepar- 
ing a  seed  bed  for  sorghum. 

Substantially  the  same  manures  and  fertilizers 
may  be  supplied  for  sorghum  as  for  corn,  and  by  the 
same  methods.  (See  Page  19.)  As  previously  inti- 
mated, nitrogenous  fertilizers  are  not  so  essential  for 
sorghum  as  for  corn. 


SORGHUM.  39 

Sowing. — Sorghum  should  not  be  sown  until 
the  weather  has  become  decidedly  warm.  No  good 
can  result  from  sowing  it  sooner,  even  though  the 
seed  should  germinate.  It  will  not  make  any  marked 
advance  in  growth  until  the  arrival  of  settled  warm 
weather,  and  if  kept  practically  standing  still  after 
it  has  sprouted,  it  would  seem  to  lose  much  of  its 
natural  power  to  grow  on  the  return  of  weather 
favorable  to  its  progress.  Sorghum  sown  late,  under 
favorable  conditions  as  to  growth,  will  produce  more 
and  better  forage,  and  at  an  earlier  period,  than  sor- 
ghum sown  several  weeks  earlier,  but  which  has  been 
severely  checked  in  its  growth  by  weather  unduly 
cool.  This  has  been  demonstrated  more  than  once 
in  the  experience  of  the  author. 

Of  course,  no  date  can  be  fixed  upon  for  sowing 
sorghum  that  would  be  equally  applicable  to  all  parts 
of  the  country.  Nor  would  it  be  applicable  to  sec- 
tions on  the  same  parallel  of  latitude.  The  mean  tem- 
perature, as  is  well  known,  differs  widely  with  a  dif- 
ference in  altitude  and  a  difference  of  distance  from 
large  bodies  of  water.  No  better  rule  probably  can 
be  given  for  sowing  sorghum  than  that  which  would 
invariably  delay  sowing  until  toward  the  close  of  the 
corn-planting  season.  And  where  there  is  moisture 
enough  to  produce  a  crop  of  forage  the  sowing  may 
be  continued  in  warm  or  mild  latitudes  until  within 
eight  to  ten  weeks  of  the  arrival  of  frost.  Frost  will 
injure  sorghum  more  readily  than  corn,  hence  the 
aim  should  be  to  delay  sowing  until  the  spring  frosts 
have  disappeared,  and  to  have  the  crop  eaten  off  by 
the  time  that  the  autumn  frosts  arrive. 

Sorghum  is  frequently  sown  broadcast  to  pro- 
vide soiling  food  and  also  winter  fodder.  But  this 


4O  FORAGE    CROPS. 

mode  of  sowing*  it,  as  compared  with  drill  sowing, 
not  only  calls  for  more  seed,  but  is  attended  with 
greater  hazard.  It  calls  for  more  seed  because  of  the 
imperfect  covering  given  to  the  same  by  the  harrow. 
In  dry,  hot  weather  that  portion  of  the  seed  lying 
near  the  surface  will  not  germinate,  even  though  the 
ground  should  be  moist  below.  And  when  the  crop 
is  harrowed,  more  plants  will  be  torn  out  by  the  har- 
row than  if  the  seed  had  been  sown  with  the  drill. 
The  hazard  is  also  greater  for  the  reason  that,  if  dry 
weather  should  follow  the  season  of  germination,  the 
plants  that  have  rooted  nearest  the  surface  will  be 
the  first  to  suffer.  But  in  the  absence  of  a  seed  drill 
it  may  be  thus  sown  with  the  expectation  that  ordi- 
narily many  of  the  seeds  will  fail  to  produce  plants, 
hence  much  seed  ought  to  be  sown. 

There  is  no  better  mode  of  sowing  it  than  with 
the  grain  drill.  When  thus  sown,  ordinarily  all  the 
tubes  should  plant  seed.  But  in  areas  where  moisture 
is  wont  to  be  scant,  every  alternate  tube  only  should 
be  in  use.  The  seed  should  not  be  covered  deeply, 
never  more  deeply  than  one  and  one-half  to  two 
inches,  as  in  the  black  humus  soils  of  the  prairie,  and 
less  deeply  in  soils  of  heavier  texture.  When  sown 
late  in  the  season  and  the  weather  has  turned  dry,  it 
may  also  be  well  to  close  up  some  of  the  drill  tubes, 
lest  there  should  be  too  many  plants  for  the  moisture. 
The  number  of  these  can,  of  course,  be  reduced  by 
running  over  the  crop  with  the  harrow,  with  no  other 
cost  than  that  of  harrowing,  and  no  other  waste  than 
that  of  a  portion  of  the  seed.  This  mode  of  sowing 
the  sorghum  would  be  especially  applicable  to  semi- 
arid  regions,  where  the  rainfall  in  summer  is  unreli- 
able and  ordinarily  insufficient  to  perfect  a  crop.  The 


SORGHUM.  41 

plants  will  not  then  rob  each  other  of  moisture  so 
readily  because  of  their  greater  distance  from  one 
another. 

The  quantity  of  seed  to  use  will  depend  upon  the 
mode  of  sowing,  the  extent  of  the  harrowing  that  is 
to  follow,  and  the  other  seeds  along  with  which  the 
sorghum  is  sown.  When  broadcasted,  from  one 
bushel  to  one  and  one-half  bushels  of  seed  are  sown 
per  acre.  When  sown  with  the  drill,  the  writer  has 
found  three  pecks  of  seed  per  acre  quite,  sufficient. 
But  if  the  sorghum  is  to  be  harrowed  more  fre- 
quently than  once  after  the  heads  of  the  young  plants 
begin  to  show  above  ground,  more  than  the  amount 
stated  should  be  sown.  If  the  sorghum  is  sown  along 
with  rape  seed,  the  proportion  of  the  sorghum  should 
be  reduced.  From  two  to  three  pounds  per  acre  of 
the  rape  seed  should  suffice.  By  mixing  in  the  rape 
seed  with  the  sorghum  seed  occasionally  during  the 
sowing  process,  the  seeds  of  both  may  be  deposited 
simultaneously  by  the  drill  tubes.  The  rape  seed 
may  also  be  sown  before  the  drill  tubes  in  instances 
where  the  action  of  the  latter  would  cover  the  rape 
seed  sufficiently  while  the  sorghum  was  being  sown. 
The  rape  seed  may  in  other  instances  be  sown  broad- 
cast and  covered  lightly  with  the  harrow  at  the  time 
of  sowing  the  sorghum  seed,  or  when  the  first  subse- 
quent harrowing  is  being  given  to  the  crop.  When 
sown  with  millet  or  cowpeas,  the  seeds  may  be  mixed 
and  drilled  in  at  the  same  time.  But  on  some  soils 
the  cowpeas  ought  to  be  covered  more  deeply  than 
the  sorghum.  In  such  instances  the  cowpeas  would 
have  to  be  sown  first  and  then  the  sorghum,  at  a  less 
depth.  When  other  seeds  are  added  to  that  of  the 
sorghum,  this  should  be  proportionately  reduced. 


42  FORAGE    CROPS. 

Usually,  but  not  always,  the  roller  should  follow 
closely  upon  the  sowing  of  the  sorghum. 

Cultivation. — Ordinarily  no  other  cultivation  is 
given  to  sorghum  sown  for  pasture  than  that  of  har- 
rowing it  once  or  oftener  after  it  has  sprouted.  But 
if  planted  in  rows  sufficiently  distant  from  one 
another  to  admit  of  using  the  cultivator,  then  it  may 
be  cultivated  several  times  at  proper  intervals,  in 
addition  to  the  harrowing  that  may  be  given  with 
much  benefit  just  as  the  first  blades  of  the  sorghum 
begin  to  show  above  ground.  But  it  is  seldom  neces- 
sary thus  to  sow  the  sorghum  to  furnish  pasture. 

When  the  first  harrowing  is  given  to  the  sor- 
ghum, it  is  important  that  the  harrow  shall  be  light 
and  that  when  used  the  teeth  are  placed  as  far  as 
possible  at  a  backward  slant.  The  harrow  simply 
stirs  the  surface  of  the  land  without  cutting  down 
amid  the  roots  of  the  young  plants.  Myriads  of 
weeds  are  at  the  same  time  destroyed  as  they  are 
springing  into  life  near  the  surface  of  the  soil. 

Just  how  much  harrowing  sorghum  will  stand 
without  harm,  and  just  when  it  ought  to  be  given, 
does  not  appear  to  have  been  made  the  subject  of  any 
careful  experiments,  the  results  of  which  have  been 
published.  It  would  seem  probable,  however,  that 
unless  an  excess  of  seed  has  been  sown,  if  a  second 
harrowing  is  given,  it  should  not  be  given  until  after 
the  plants  have  made  a  growth  of,  say,  five  to  seven 
inches.  They  will  have  then  become  more  firmly 
rooted,  hence  the  harrow  will  not  so  readily  pull  them 
out  as  if  the  harrowing  had  been  given  at  an  earlier 
period.  In  sections  where  the  supply  of  moisture  is 
insufficient  or  barely  sufficient  to  produce  a  crop,  the 
loss  of  plants  up  to  a  certain  limit  would  do  no  harm. 


SORGHUM.  43 

Pasturing. — Sorghum  furnishes  excellent  pas- 
ture for  horses  and  mules  not  at  work,  for  all  kinds 
of  cattle  and  for  sheep  and  swine.  As  it  grows  up 
again  when  eaten  down,  it  is  not  necessary  that  it 
shall  be  so  far  advanced  as  corn  before  the  pasturing 
begins.  When  the  area  of  the  sorghum  pasture  is 
large  in  proportion  to  the  stock  to  be  pastured  on  it, 
then  pasturing  should  begin  early,  and  vice  versa. 
But  in  no  case  should  it  be  eaten  down  until  it  has 
made  a  growth  of  several  inches  from  the  ground, 
as  when  young  and  tender  it  is  easily  injured  by  live 
stock  feeding  upon  it.  At  the  Minnesota  University 
experiment  station  good  results  have  been  obtained 
from  turning  sheep  in  upon  the  sorghum  when  it  had 
reached  the  hight  of  about  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches, 
as  shown  in  Fig.  6.  But  with  the  exception  of  a  por- 
tion of  the  stem,  sheep  will  graze  it  down  when  it  is 
much  higher  than  fifteen  to  eighteen  inches.  Cattle 
will,  of  course,  break  down  and  waste  much  more 
than  sheep.  Swine  may  be  grazed  upon  it  as  early  as 
sheep.  But  it  is  when  sorghum  approaches  maturity 
and  subsequently  that  swine  would  seem  to  be  most 
benefited  by  pasturing  upon  it.  They  chew  the 
stem  and  extract  the  nutriment  from  it  without  swal- 
lowing much  of  the  stem. 

All  things  considered,  however,  sorghum  pas- 
ture is  more  valuable  relatively  for  sheep  than  for  any 
other  kind  of  live  stock.  And  to  get  the  best  results 
from  sorghum  pasture,  the  sheep  should  not  be 
allowed  to  graze  it  off  too  closely.  It  will  grow 
again,  though  grazed  closely,  but  the  growth  will  be 
slower  and  less  vigorous  than  if  the  pasturing  had 
not  been  so  close.  Stripping  off  all  the  leaves  would 
seem  to  detract  somewhat  from  the  inherent  vigor 


44 


FORAGE     CROPS. 


ll 

£  I 

c 


SORGHUM.  45 

of  the  plant.  When  sorghum  is  grazed  by  sheep, 
more  pasture  will  be  obtained  if  the  ground  thus 
grazed  can  be  divided  into  two  or  three  sections  and 
if  the  sheep  are  grazed  on  these  alternately.  Sor- 
ghum may  thus  be  pastured  off  two  or  three  or  four 
times  in  a  season,  according  to  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate. 

Sometimes  sorghum  is  grown,  as  described 
above,  to  produce  soiling  food,  and  when  one  cutting 
has  been  taken  from  it,  the  next  or  second  growth  is 
pastured  off.  A  very  large  amount  of  forage  may 
thus  be  obtained  when  all  the  conditions  are 
favorable. 

The  aim  should  be  to  have  sorghum  grazed  off 
before  the  arrival  of  killing  frosts.  It  is  easily  injured 
by  the  frost,  and  when  so  injured  live  stock  do  not 
relish  it.  They  wrill  eat  it  under  pressure,  but  do  not 
seem  fond  of  it. 

The  claim  has  been  made  that  there  is  considera- 
ble hazard  to  animals,  especially  cattle,  when  pas- 
tured on  second  growth  sorghum.  At  the  Minne- 
sota experiment  station  we  have  not  found  it  so  dur- 
ing three  successive  seasons  of  pasturing,  beginning 
with  1895.  But  our  experience  relates  only  to  pas- 
turing with  sheep.  A  view  of  sheep  pasturing  on 
second  growth  sorghum  is  presented  in  Fig.  8.  The 
first  season  some  fifty-three  animals,  young  and  old, 
were  pastured  on  the  sorghum,  the  second  year  an 
average  of  eighty-six  head,  and  the  third  year  an 
average  of  ninety-three  head.  But  one  animal,  a 
lamb,  was  lost  while  feeding  on  the  sorghum,  and 
the  cause  of  death  in  that  instance  arose  from  a  lung 
affection,  and  not  from  eating  sorghum.  There  are, 
however,  well-authenticated  instances  wherein  cattle 


46 


FORAGE    CROPS. 


WW%*^^  sSSS 
^m^li'  ^feSST  LlSS^^i 


SORGHUM.  47 

have  died  suddenly  while  grazing  on  second  growth 
sorghum.  The  exact  cause  or  causes  of  such  loss  do 
not  appear  to  be  well  understood.  It  has  been  sur- 
mised that  death  has  been  caused  by  some  poisonous 
element  in  the  sorghum,  and  that  frost  may  have 
something  to  do  with  thus  changing  the  character  of 
this  splendid  food.  We  must  wait  for  a  completely 
satisfactory  explanation,  for  it  has  not  as  yet  been 
forthcoming.  In  the  meantime,  caution  should  be 
exercised  in  pasturing  cattle  on  second  growth  sor- 
ghum, especially  late  in  the  season. 

Caution  should  also  be  exercised  when  cattle  or 
sheep  are  first  put  upon  sorghum  pasture.  There  is 
some  danger  from  hoven  or  bloat,  but  not  nearly  so 
much  as  with  clover,  or  alfalfa.  That,  at  least,  has 
been  the  experience  of  the  Minnesota  experiment  sta- 
tion. At  the  said  station  no  instance  of  bloat 
occurred  from  grazing  on  sorghum  during  the  three 
seasons  of  depasturing  above  referred  to.  Yet  that 
fact  is  not  to  be  taken  as  positive  evidence  that  sheep 
will  not  suffer  from  bloat  in  all  sections  of  the  coun- 
try and  under  all  circumstances  when  pasturing  on 
sorghum. 

Sometimes  cattle  are  turned  in  to  graze  upon 
the  sorghum  after  it  has  matured.  This  practice  is 
frequent  in  portions  of  the  semi-arid  country  adja- 
cent to  the  Rocky  mountains,  especially  those  por- 
tions of  the  same  that  have  mild  winters.  The  cattle 
do  well  on  it,  but  the  practice  is  a  wasteful  one.  Yet 
where  land  is  cheap  and  labor  dear,  sometimes  it  may 
be  a  proper  thing  to  do.  Of  course,  \vhere  the  winters 
are  severe  the  practice  would  be  without  justification. 


CHAPTER  IV. 

THE  NON-SACCHARINE  SORGHUMS. 

The  non-saccharine  sorghums  are  a  somewhat 
numerous  class.  They  are  so  called  because  of  the 
relatively  small  proportion  of  sugar  which  they  con- 
tain, as  compared  with  the  saccharine  varieties  of 
sorghum.  Because  of  this,  however,  the  conclusion 
must  not  be  reached  that  they  do  not  possess  any 
sugar  when  matured,  or  that  they  do  not  possess  it 
in  considerable  quantities.  All  the  non-saccharine 
sorghums  are  more  or  less  rich  in  sugar,  and  some 
of  them  are  possessed  of  it  in  a  very  considerable 
degree. 

The  chief  of  the  varieties  of  the  non-saccharine 
sorghums  grown  in  this  country  include  Kaffir  corn 
(Fig  9),  Milo  maize,  Dhourra  and  Jerusalem  corn. 
Teosinte  is  not,  properly  speaking,  a  sorghum,  but  it 
will  be  discussed  along  with  the  non-saccharine  sor- 
ghums, because  of  the  similarity  of  the  cultivation 
required  to  grow  it  and  of  the  uses  for  which  it  is 
grown.  Chief  among  the  varieties  of  Kaffir  corn 
are  the  red  and  the  white.  There  are  two  prominent 
varieties  of  Milo  maize,  named  yellow  and  white, 
respectively.  And  of  Dhourra  there  are  also  two 
varieties,  the  brown  and  the  white.  The  last  men- 
tioned would  seem  to  be  identical  with  the  plant 
known  as  White  African  millet.  As  but  little,  com- 
paratively, has  yet  appeared  in  print  with  reference 
to  the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  unless  it  be  Kaffir 

48 


THE    NON-SACCHARINE    SORGHUMS. 


49 


il 

5  — . 


I  o 

-I 

3    •* 


5O  FORAGE    CROPS. 

corn,  it  may  be  well  to  give  a  very  brief  description 
of  each. 

Kaffir  corn,  like  sorghum,  has  an  upright  habit 
of  growth,  but  it  does  not  grow  to  so  great  a  hight 
as  sorghum  or  corn,  hence  it  is  more  easily  handled  in 
the  sheaf,  when  matured,  than  either  of  these  plants. 
The  stalks  are  sturdy  and  strong,  and  they  taper  as 
they  grow  upward,  as  seen  in  Fig.  10,  showing  white 
Kaffir  corn  grown  for  fodder.  The  leaves  are  large, 
long  and  fairly  numerous,  more  especially  in  the  cen- 
tral portion  of  the  stalk,  and  they  usually  retain  much 
of  their  greenness  for  some  time  after  the  maturing 
of  the  seed.  The  seed  head  is  long  and  erect,  and 
the  production  of  seed  is  abundant.  The  white  and 
red  varieties  are  distinguished  chiefly  by  the  color  of 
the  seed  head  and  of  the  seed.  The  white  variety  is 
later  in  maturing  than  the  red,  but  it  produces 
more  seed. 

Milo  maize,  in  both  the  yellow  and  white  vari- 
eties, has  an  erect  habit  of  growth  and  usually  attains 
a  great  hight  (Fig.  1 1 ).  The  stems  are  not  so  stocky 
as  those  of  Kaffir  corn,  and  they  are  abundantly  sup- 
plied with  leaves  inclined  to  fine  in  quality.  They 
are  the  most  numerous  on  the  upper  half  of  the  stem. ' 
When  once  well  rooted,  the  plants  grow  rapidly  and 
produce  a  large  amount  of  good  soiling  food  or 
fodder.  The  yellow  variety  is  distinguished  from  the 
white  by  the  color  of  the  seed  and  by  some  other 
peculiarities  not  of  very  great  moment. 

Dhourra  (Fig.  12)  grows  a  strong  and  some- 
what coarse  stalk ;  but,  like  Kaffir  corn,  it  does  not 
grow  to  a  great  hight.  The  leaves  are  broad  and 
long,  but  are  not  so  numerous  as  those  produced  by 
Yellow  or  White  Milo  maize.  The  seed  head  is 


TILE     NON-SACCHARINE    SORGHUMS. 


52  FORAGE    CROPS. 

thick  and  short  and  oval  in  shape,  and  the  produc- 
tion of  seed  is  abundant.  It  does  not  produce  so 
much  fodder  as  Milo  maize. 

Jerusalem  corn  (Fig.  13)  grows  to  a  less  hight 
than  the  other  non-saccharine  sorghums.  The  stems 
are  heavy  and  the  leaf  growth  is  not  abundant.  The 
heads  are  large,  thick  and  heavy,  and  are  suspended 
on  short  stems  resembling  in  their  curve  the  neck  of 
a  goose.  This  plant  would  seem  to  be  better  adapted 
relatively  to  the  production  of  seed  than  of  fodder. 

Teosinte  (Reana  luxurians)  is  not  erect,  but 
branching  in  its  habit  of  growth.  It  is  claimed  that 
as  many  as  sixty  stems  have  been  produced  from  one 
seed.  The  plant  suckers  wonderfully  and  produces 
a  great  mass  of  long  slender  leaves.  It  has 
been  affirmed  that  in  some  of  the  Gulf  states  a 
greater  weight  of  green  food  can  be  obtained  from 
teosinte  than  from  any  variety  of  the  non-saccharine 
sorghums.  It  grows  slowly  for  a  time,  but  more 
rapidly  as  the  plants  become  older. 

The  non-saccharine  sorghums  bear  no  little 
resemblance  to  one  another  in  their  habits  of  growth. 
Chief  among  these  resemblances  are  the  following: 
First,  the  seed  of  each  is  slow  in  germinating,  con- 
siderably more  so  than  the  seed  of  corn.  The  growth 
is  also  relatively  slower  for  a  time,  although  in  the 
later  stages  thereof  it  is  quite  rapid.  Second,  the 
plants  are  more  tender  than  those  of  corn  when 
young,  but  when  more  advanced  they  are  better  able 
to  withstand  vicissitudes  of  weather,  and  more  espe- 
cially such  as  arise  from  drouth.  Third,  with  the 
exception  of  teosinte,  they  all  produce  seed  from  a 
head  which  grows  on  the  top  of  the  seed  stem  that 
pushes  upward  from  each  plant.  Teosinte  produces 


THE    NON-SACCHARINE    SORGHUMS.  53 


if 


I 


54  FORAGE    CROPS. 

small  ears.  They  grow  numerously  around  every 
top  joint,  and  are  inclosed  in  a  husk.  Some  of  the 
heads  remain  erect,  as  those  of  Kaffir  corn.  Others, 
as  those  of  Dhourra  and  Jerusalem  corn,  hang  down, 
suspended  on  a  goose  neck  curve  of  the  seed  stem. 
Fourth,  seeds  are  numerous,  but  are  much  smaller 
than  those  of  corn.  Fifth,  they  require  a  longer 
period  to  mature  seed  than  is  required  by  corn,  hence 
in  the  far  south  they  may  be  cut  from  two  to  four 
times  in  one  season  to  provide  green  food.  Strong 
evidence  is  here  presented  of  the  marked  adaptability 
of  these  plants  to  furnish  pasture,  but  with  the  excep- 
tion of  Kaffir  corn  the  author  is  unable  to  cite  conclu- 
sive experience  in  growing  these  crops  for  pasture. 
Reasoning  from  general  principles,  teosinte  should 
lead  the  list  in  such  adaptability,  because  of  its  extra- 
ordinary tendency  to  tiller  and  to  produce  an  abun- 
dance of  fine  leaves.  But  the  question  of  palatability 
will  have  an  important  bearing  on  the  relative  value 
of  these  various  plants  for  pasturing,  and  this  does 
not  as  )fet  appear  to  have  been  fully  determined. 

The  non-saccharine  sorghums  differ  from  one 
another  in  the  following  particulars  among  others 
that  could  be  enumerated :  First,  in  the  size  and 
strength  of  the  stem.  Second,  in  the  size  and  number 
of  the  leaves.  Third,  in  the  erect  or  pendulous  char- 
acter of  the  stem  which  sustains  the  matured  seed. 
Fourth,  in  the  degree  to  which  they  sucker  or  tiller, 
and,  fifth,  in  the  time  which  they  require  to  mature 
their  seed.  At  the  Minnesota  University  experiment 
farm  in  1897,  but  little  ripe  seed  was  produced  by  any 
of  the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  although  planted  on 
May  1 7th.  These  plants  were  not  seriously  injured 


THE    NON-SACCHARINE    SORGHUMS.  55 


Fig.  12.    Brown  Dhourra  Grown  lor  Fodder. 

Minnesota    University    Experiment    Farm. 


56  FORAGE    CROPS. 

by  frost  before  October.  White  Milo  maize  did  not 
mature  any  seed,  and  teosinte  did  not  reach  even 
the  earing  stage.  Several  varieties  of  corn  planted 
at  the  same  time  matured  seed  by  September  i  st  and 
some  even  earlier;  and  Early  Amber  sorghum 
planted  at  the  same  date  fully  matured  its  seed. 

It  is  not  easy  to  draw  the  line  between  the  non- 
saccharine  sorghums  and  some  varieties  of  millet. 
The  chief  differences  would  seem  to  lie  in  the  size  of 
the  stalk,  the  abundance  or  otherwise  of  the  leaves,  ^ 
the  size  and  shape  of  the  head,  and  the  size  of  the 
seed.  The  stems  of  millets  are  smaller  and  more 
leafy,  though  Pearl  millet  has  stems  nearly  as  large 
as  some  of  the  sorghums.  The  heads  of  the  sorghums 
are  larger  and  broader  and  less  slender  in  character. 

Distribution. — The  non-saccharine  sorghums 
are  of  course  specially  adapted  to  conditions  warmer 
and  drier  than  are  suitable  for  growing  Indian  corn 
at  its  best.  They  have  been  found  preferable  to  the 
saccharine  sorghums  in  many  localities,  for  the  rea- 
son that  they  give  better  yields  of  stalk  and  grain, 
and  some  of  them  are  more  leafy.  It  would  not  be 
easy  or  possible  at  the  present  time  to  state  exactly 
where  the  dividing  line  should  run  between  those 
portions  of  the  United  States  which  will  grow  corn 
or  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  to  the  best  advan- 
tage. Bearing  in  mind  that  the  latter  require  more 
heat  and  can  endure  more  drouth,  they  must  be 
grown  south  rather  than  north.  The  non-saccharine 
sorghums  will  probably  grow  more  food  per  acre 
than  corn  south  of  a  line  as  now  described :  This 
line  would  begin  at  the  Atlantic  and  would  probably 
run  along  or  near  the  southern  border  of  the  states  of 
Virginia  and  Kentucky  until  reaching  the  Mississippi 


THE    NON-SACCHARINE    SORGHUMS. 


57 


58  FORAGE    CROPS. 

river.  It  would  then  run  irregularly  across  the 
states  of  Missouri  and  Kansas  to  about  the  latitude 
of  Denver  in  Colorado.  From  Denver  it  would 
probably  rise  to  the  latitude  of  Salt  Lake  City,  or  even 
further  northward  in  the  lower  valleys,  and  it  would 
again  dip  southward,  reaching  the  sea  somewhere 
about  San  Francisco.  North  of  this  line  it  is  pretty 
certain  that  corn  could  be  grown  more  profitably  at 
the  present  time,  for  the  combined  uses  of  the  prod- 
uct of  the  grain,  the  fodder  and  the  pasture.  But 
for  pasture  only,  some  of  them  are  likely  to  prove 
more  valuable  than  corn,  although  it  is  questionable 
if  any  of  them  will  show  a  higher  relative  value  than 
the  saccharine  sorghums  in  providing  pasture  north 
of  the  said  line.  Saccharine  sorghums  germinate 
more  quickly,  at  least  in  some  of  their  varieties,  and 
are  better  able  to  endure  lower  temperature.  But  as 
the  non-saccharine  sorghums  become  better  acclima- 
tized, more  may  be  expected  from  them.  The  growth 
of  these,  however,  is  not  likely  ever  to  prove  profit- 
able in  any  considerable  areas  of  Canada,  since  in 
that  country  the  mean  summer  temperatures  are  low. 
And  the  expectation  is  natural  that  the  non- 
saccharine  sorghums  will  not  grow  equally  well  in  all 
parts  of  the  south.  Future  experimentation  with 
them  will  doubtless  show  special  adaptation  to  cer- 
tain peculiarities  of  soil  and  climate.  Already  are 
they  being  grown  more  in  certain  centers  than  in 
others.  Kaffir  corn  has  given  excellent  results  in  the 
dry  areas  of  Kansas  and  Oklahoma.  Milo  maize  has 
grown  excellently  well  in  certain  of  the  Atlantic 
states,  notably  Georgia,  and  teosinte  is  giving 
evidence  that  it  is  going  to  be  a  child  of  the  far  south- 
ward portion  of  this  country. 


THE    NON-SACCHARINE    SORGHUMS.  59 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — When  the  non-saccha- 
rine sorghums  are  grown  on  soils  low  in  fertility  and 
leechy  in  character,  the  aim  should  be  to  grow  them 
after  some  form  of  green  crop  that  has  been  plowed 
under,  as,  for  instance,  crimson  clover,  one  or  the 
other  of  the  vetches,  or  winter  rye.  Since  crimson 
clover  and  the  vetches  are  able  to  store  nitrogen  in 
the  land,  they  will  be  much  more  suitable  than  rye 
where  they  will  grow  equally  well.  These  crops  can 
be  grown  in  the  winter  and  plowed  under  in  the 
spring  in  ample  time  to  admit  of  sowing  one  or  the 
other  of  the  non-saccharine  sorghums  on  the  same 
land.  Thus  treated  they  will  greatly  add  to  the 
ability  of  the  soil  to  produce.  In  addition  to  fur- 
nishing readily  available  food  for  the  sorghums,  they 
will  also  give  the  land  much  power  to  hold  moisture. 
Both  crops,  that  is  to  say,  the  green  crop  and  the 
sorghum  crop  coming  after  it,  would  be  cleaning 
crops.  Where  these  crops  can  not  be  made  to  follow 
a  green  crop  plowed  under,  they  may  be  placed 
anywhere  in  the  rotation.  On  poor  soils  it  would  be 
necessary  to  add  commercial  fertilizers  before  plant- 
ing the  crop.  But  on  the  rich  soils  of  the  Mississippi 
basin  this  would  not  be  so  necessary,  and  the  same  is 
true  of  much  of  the  soil  in  Texas  and  in  the  moun- 
tain valleys  of  the  southwest. 

Soils. — The  soils  most  suitable  for  the  non- 
saccharine  sorghums  are  much  the  same  as  those  that 
are  best  suited  to  corn.  They  will  grow  best  on  mild 
loams,  that  is  to  say,  loams  that  are  warm  and 
friable,  in  which  the  particles  are  fine  rather 
than  coarse,  and  in  which  the  sand  and  clay 
are  so  blended  as  to  give  the  soil  power  to 
retain  a .  fair  amount  of  moisture  when  lying 


60  FORAGE    CROPS. 

on  a  subsoil  of  somewhat  porous  clay.  But  since 
these  sorghums  are  all  possessed  of  much  power 
to  gather  food  under  dry  conditions,  they  will  grow 
better  relatively  on  sandy  bottoms  than  corn.  A 
chief  difficulty  to  be  overcome  in  many  of  the  soils  of 
the  south  is  a  want  of  fertility,  hence  it  is  oftentimes 
necessary  in  some  way  to  fertilize  them  in  the  Gulf 
and  Atlantic  states  of  that  region,  in  order  to  get 
good  crops.  But  the  black  soils  of  many  of  the  river 
bottoms,  of  the  prairies  west  of  the  Mississippi,  and 
the  gray  soils  of  the  southwestern  valleys  being  rich 
in  food  constituents,  are  admirably  adapted  to 
growing  these  crops  when  sufficiently  supplied  with 
water,  and  without  the  necessity  of  adding  fertility 
in  the  meantime. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — When  preparing  the  soil 
for  these  crops,  much  will  depend  on  the  attendant 
conditions.  In  the  Gulf  states,  where  moisture  is 
much  more  abundant  than  in  trans-Mississippi  areas, 
the  land  may  be  plowed  in  the  spring.  Of  course 
where  a  green  crop  grown  through  the  winter  was  to 
be  turned  under,  of  necessity  it  would  have  to  be 
turned  under  in  the  spring.  In  areas  more  dry,  as, 
for  instance,  western  Kansas  and  Oklahoma,  it  would 
be  better  to  plow  the  land  in  the  autumn  where  the 
same  could  be  done,  and  to  harrow  it  betimes  in  the 
spring  until  the  season  had  arrived  for  planting  the 
sorghum.  Where  irrigation  is  practiced,  of  course 
the  farmer  may  plow  the  land  at  that  season  that  will 
best  suit  his  convenience  and  the  end  that  he  has 
in  view. 

When  a  green  crop  is  turned  under  in  the  spring 
the  land  should  be  rolled  as  soon  as  possible  there- 
after to  hinder  surface  evaporation.  And  where  the 


THE    NON-SACCHARINE    SORGHUMS.  6 1 

land  will  not  drift,  the  same  treatment  should  be 
given  to  spring  plowed  land  in  any  case,  in  areas 
where  moisture  is  not  plentiful. 

Where  commercial  fertilizers  are  applied,  it  is 
common  to  sow  them  at  the  same  time  as  the  seed. 
The  seed  and  the  fertilizer,  however,  should  not  be 
deposited  by  the  same  drill  tube,  lest  the  fertilizer 
should  injure  the  seed,  because  of  too  close  proximity 
to  it  and  in  quantities  too  large.  When  it  is  desired 
to  sow  the  sorghums  thickly,  as  for  pasture,  it  would 
be  easily  practicable  to  apply  the  fertilizers  in  the 
broadcasted  form  and  just  before  the  drilling  in  of 
the  seed.  The  kind  of  fertilizer  to  apply  must  be 
determined  chiefly  by  the  needs  of  the  land. 

Sowing. — Since  all  the  non-saccharine  sor- 
ghums are  natives  of  the  south,  they  cannot  endure 
low  temperatures.  It  is  useless  to  plant  them  in  a 
soil  not  yet  warm,  or  before  the  arrival  of  distinc- 
tively settled  warm  weather.  If  planted  sooner, 
either  the  seed  will  not  sprout  at  all  or  it  will  make 
but  a  feeble  and  sickly  growth  after  it  has  sprouted, 
if  indeed  the  young  plants  do  not  perish  outright. 
At  the  Minnesota  University  experiment  station  it 
has  been  noticed,  first,  that  seed  corn  of  varieties 
grown  north  until  acclimated  will  sprout  under  con- 
ditions much  more  adverse  than  the  more  tender 
southern  varieties  of  corn,  and  that  the  growth  of  the 
young  plants  will  be  correspondingly  more  vigorous. 
Second,  that  the  early  growth  of  varieties  long 
acclimated  is  more  vigorous  than  that  of  varieties  but 
recently  acclimated.  Third,  that  these  varieties  of 
corn  will  grow  with  a  fair  amount  of  vigor  under 
conditions  where  the  seed  of  Early  Amber  sorghum 
with  all  its  ruggedness  would  fail  to  germinate,  or 


62  FORAGE    CROPS. 

where  though  able  to  germinate  it  could  make  only  a 
feeble  and  sickly  growth.  Fourth,  Early  Amber 
sorghum  plants  made  a  fair  amount  of  growth  under 
conditions  of  temperature  too  low  for  the  successful 
starting  of  the  non-saccharine  sorghums.  Fifth, 
that  among  the  non-saccharine  sorghums,  the  slowest 
in  starting  was  teosinte,  and,  sixth,  that  when  any  of 
these  sorghums  made  but  a  feeble  growth  at  the  first, 
the  plants  from  seed  sown  later  and  under  more 
favorable  conditions  as  to  temperature  made  a  much 
more  satisfactory  growth.  There  would  seem  to 
be  no  advantage  therefore  but  rather  disadvan- 
tage in  planting  the  seed  of  the  non-saccharine 
sorghums  earlier  than  the  season  of  abiding  warm 
weather. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  fix  the  exact  date  at 
which  the  seed  of  these  plants  should  be  sown.  It 
will  vary  with  the  locality  and  with  the  season.  The 
date  for  planting  would  of  course  be  later  than  the 
date  best  suited  to  planting  corn.  Kaffir  corn 
should  follow  doubtless  close  upon  the  corn  planting 
season,  while  teosinte  would  not  suffer  though  not 
planted  until  a  period  considerably  later. 

To  provide  soiling  food  and  also  fodder,  non- 
saccharine  sorghums  are  usually  sown  in  rows  and  at 
distances  which  vary  with  the  soil  and  with  the 
variety  of  the  plant.  Usually  they  should  not  be 
grown  less  distant  than  corn  grown  for  the  same 
uses,  that  is  to  say,  the  rows  should  not  be  closer  than 
thirty  inches  nor  more  distant  than  forty-eight 
inches.  But  a  distance  of  sixty  inches  is  allowed  in 
some  instances  between  the  rows  of  teosinte;  and 
the  taller  of  these  plants,  as,  for  instance,  Milo 
maize,  would  seem  to  require  a  greater  distance 


THE    NON-SACCHARINE    SORGHUMS.  63 

between  the  rows  than  the  shorter  varieties,  as,  for 
instance,  Jerusalem  corn. 

When  grown  for  pasture  the  seed  may  be  sown 
broadcast  and  covered  with  the  harrow,  but  when 
thus  sown  more  seed  is  required,  as  some  of  the  plants 
will  fail  to  germinate, nor  will  they  come  upsoevenly, 
since  the  seed  is  buried  at  uneven  depths.  The  sub- 
sequent use  of  the  harrow  will  tear  out  a  goodly 
number  of  plants,  since  at  first  they  are  less  robust 
than  corn  plants,  and  less  firmly  rooted  in  the  soil. 
And  if  grazed  while  the  plants  are  still  young  and 
tender,  more  of  them  will  be  pulled  up  by  the  roots. 
It  is  preferable,  therefore,  to  plant  the  seed  with  the 
grain  drill,  and  with  all  the  tubes  in  use ;  but  under 
some  conditions,  as,  for  instance,  those  in  which  the 
probable  rainfall  is  deficient,  it  may  be  advantageous 
to  plant  the  seed  in  rows  far  enough  apart  to  admit  of 
cultivation  other  than  harrowing. 

When  the  seed  of  these  sorghums  is  sown  broad- 
cast to  provide  pasture,  not  less  than  one  bushel  per 
acre  of  seed  is  required.  But  under  conditions  that 
are  very  dry,  much  less  than  that  amount  may  suffice, 
since  the  plants  if  too  numerous  will  pine  for  want 
of  moisture.  Wrhen  planted  with  the  grain  drill  with 
all  the  tubes  in  use,  three  pecks  of  seeds  should  be 
ample ;  and  when  the  rows  are  made  distant  enough 
to  admit  of  horse  cultivation,  a  few  quarts  of  seed 
per  acre  will  be  found  sufficient. 

Cultivation. — If  sown  broadcast,  the  only  culti- 
vation that  can  be  given  to  these  crops  would  be  to 
harrow  them,  and  the  harrow  would  have  to  be  used 
with  extreme  caution.  It  should  of  course  be  light, 
and  when  so  used  the  teeth  should  have  much  of  a 
backward  slant,  otherwise  too  many  of  the  plants 


64  FORAGE    CROPS. 

would  be  torn  out  or  buried.  In  any  event,  many  of 
them  would  be  disturbed  or  uprooted,  and  to  provide 
for  such  a  contingency  it  would  be  necessary  to  sow 
enough  seed  to  allow  for  the  thinning  that  would 
thus  be  given  to  the  plants.  If  sown  with  the  grain 
drill,  all  the  tubes  running,  or  only  a  part  of  them, 
the  cultivation  would  be  the  same.  But  when  thus 
sown  there  would  be  less  disturbance  to  the  plants,  as 
the  seed  would  be  deposited  more  deeply  in  the  soil, 
and  if  the  harrowing  were  given  just  before  the 
young  plants  appeared  above  the  surface,  the 
disturbance  would  be  less  than  when  given  later. 
Since  these  plants  are  more  delicate  than  corn 
when  young,  the  harrow  cannot  be  used  upon  them 
so  freely. 

When  planted  in  rows  to  provide  pasture,  or 
indeed  for  any  purpose,  it  would  be  greatly  advan- 
tageous to  the  crop  to  cultivate  it  frequently  when 
the  rows  are  sufficiently  distant  to  admit  of  horse 
cultivation.  The  kind  of  cultivation  would  be  about 
the  same  as  for  corn,  and  the  benefits  therefrom 
would  be  similar  in  kind.  ( See  Page  22. )  After  a 
season  of  depasturing  such  cultivation  would  be  very 
beneficial,  since  it  would  take  away  any  tendency 
to  over-impaction  or  encrustation  of  the  soil  that 
might  arise  because  of  the  treading  of  the  hoofs  of 
the  animals  that  had  been  thus  grazed. 

Pasturing. — No  one  of  the  non-saccharine  sor- 
ghums would  seem  as  yet  to  have  been  grown  to  any 
considerable  extent  for  pasture,  and  yet  some  of  them 
at  least  may  be  made  to  render  excellent  service  in 
that  way.  Kaffir  corn  grown  at  the  Minnesota  Uni- 
versity experiment  station  proved  quite  satisfactory 
in  providing  summer  pasture  for  sheep,  but  not  quite 


THE     NON-SACCHARINE    SORGHUMS.1  65 

so  much  so  as  the  Early  Amber  variety  of  sorghum. 
When  grazed  off  at  the  hight  of  about  a  foot  it  at 
once  shot  up  again  and  with  a  greatly  increased  num- 
ber of  shoots.  The  blades  of  the  Kaffir  corn  were 
coarser  and  when  the  pasture  had  been  grazed  down 
they  did  not  grow  up  again  so  erectly  nor  so  numer- 
ously ;  and  yet  it  is  possible  that  in  localities  in  which 
there  is  betimes  a  deficiency  of  moisture,  Kaffir 
corn  may  furnish  more  pasture  than  sorghum.; 
Milo  maize  in  both  of  its  varieties  should  furnish 
excellent  pasture  and  much  of  it,  since  it  is  a  vigorous 
plant  and  prolific  in  growing  leaves.  But  no  one  of 
these  plants  should  prove  equal  to  teosinte  in  provid- 
ing pasture.  When  teosinte  is  not  sown  too  thickly, 
it  produces  leaves  in  great  abundance,  nor  has  it  a 
tendency  to  throw  up  the  stems  at  so  early  a  period 
as  the  other  non-saccharine  sorghums.  But  the 
author  has  not  been  able  to  glean  any  information 
based  on  experience  with  reference  to  the  pasturing 
of  this  plant.  In  the  far  south  it  would  prove  a 
great  boon  as  a  pasture  plant. 

W'hile  these  plants  may  under  some  conditions 
be  pastured  off  by  any  class  of  live  stock,  there  would 
probably  be  much  waste  from  pasturing  on  them 
heavy  animals,  as  horses,  mules  or  cattle,  and  the 
more  advanced  the  growth  of  the  crops  the  greater 
would  be  the  relative  waste.  But  it  would  not  be  wise 
to  pasture  such  animals  upon  them  even  at  an  early 
stage  of  growth,  for  then  the  plants  would  be  so 
much  bruised  and  crushed  by  the  hoofs  of  the 
animals  that  many  of  them  would-  be  likely  to  N 
perish.  But  there  may  be  occasions  when  it  would 
be  in  order  to  pasture  these  crops  with  heavy 
animals,  although  much  waste  should  result,,  as 
5 


66  FORAGE    CROPS. 

when,  for  instance,  they  are  to  be  plowed  under  for 
green  manure. 

In  providing  pasture  for  sheep  and  swine,  they 
should  be  equally  serviceable  with  sorghum.  Sheep 
especially  should  graze  them  down  with  but  little 
waste,  if  turned  in  upon  them  before  they  got 
beyond  the  hight  of,  say,  twelve  inches. 

In  pasturing  off  these  crops,  it  would  be  neces- 
sary to  observe  much  caution  in  turning  in  animals 
to  graze  after  the  application  of  irrigating  waters, 
or  after  much  rainfall,  especially  on  lands  that  are 
easily  injured  by  treading  when  thus  pastured. 
Impaction  under  these  conditions  would  greatly 
injure  the  future  growth  of  the  crop. 

The  duration  of  the  season  of  depasturing 
should  be  considerable  in  the  south,  owing  to  the 
length  of  the  season.  The  relative  advantage,  there- 
fore, from  growing  such  crops  in  the  south  and 
southwest  should  be  considerably  greater  than  in  the 
north.  For  how  long  a  period  they  will  provide 
pasture  from  a  single  sowing,  the  author  is  unable 
to  say.  Much  that  it  would  be  greatly  advantageous 
to  know  in  regard  to  the  growth  of  these  plants  can- 
not be  given  as  yet.  It  can  be  unfolded  only  by  the 
experience  of  the  future. 


CHAPTER  V. 

PLANTS  OF  THE  CLOVER  FAMILY. 

Unfortunately  the  number  of  the  species  of 
this  very  useful  family  of  forage  plants  that  have 
hitherto  been  grown  in  North  America  is  not  large. 
The  list  includes  the  common  or  medium  red,  the 
mammoth,  the  alsike,  the  crimson,  the  white  or 
Dutch  clover  and  alfalfa.  All  of  these  are  grown 
for  forage  to  a  greater  or  a  lesser  extent,  and  all  of 
them  are  also  grown  singly  or  in  certain  combina- 
tions to  produce  fodders  to  be  eaten  in  the  cured 
form.  But  it  is  only  with  reference  to  pasture  that 
they  will  be  considered  here. 

COMMON   OR   MEDIUM    RED   CLOVER. 

Common  or  medium  red  clover  (  Trifolium  pra- 
tense)  is  one  of  the  best  forage  plants  that  a  kind 
Providence  ever  gave  to  the  people  of  this  continent. 
Its  great  value  as  a  forage  plant  arises,  first,  from  the 
length  of  the  season  during  which  it  will  provide 
pasture ;  second,  from  the  large  amount  relatively  of 
this  pasture  that  it  will  furnish  from  a  given  area; 
third,  from  the  high  nutritive  properties  it  possesses ; 
fourth,  from  the  almost  uninterrupted  continuity  of 
the  growth  of  the  plants  from  spring  until  autumn ; 
and,  fifth,  from  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be  grown 
in  combination  with  various  other  forage  plants. 
Usuajly,  medium  red  clover  will  furnish  pasture 

67 


68  FORAGE    CROPS. 

from  the  commencement  of  the  season  of  growth 
until  the  arrival  of  autumn  frosts  of  some  degree  of 
severity.  There  is  no  other  kind  of  clover  that  will 
furnish  as  much  pasture  in  a  single  season.  The 
high  nutritive  properties  which  red  clover  possesses 
are  made  manifest  in  the  chemical  analysis  which 
the  pasture  gives,  and  in  the  quick  improvement  in 
the  condition  of  the  animals  that  are  pastured 
upon  it. 

It  is  also  excellent  for  milk  production,  because 
of  its  nitrogenous  character.  Medium  red  clover 
will  grow  from  spring  until  fall,  in  a  moist  climate, 
without  any  interruption.  Of  course,  in  dry  cli- 
mates continuity  in  growth  will  be  interrupted  soon 
after  the  arrival  of  dry  weather,  in  the  absence  of 
irrigation.  And  it  may  be  grown  for  pasture  with 
much  success  in  combination  with  such  plants  as 
timothy,  alsike,  small  white  clover,  and  orchard 
grass.  The  weak  point  in  common  red  clover  as  a 
forage  plant  lies  in  its  short  life  as  compared  with 
some  other  pasture  plants.  Speaking  in  a  general 
way,  it  would  be  called  biennial,  but  in  some  sec- 
tions of  the  republic  peculiarly  adapted  to  its  growth, 
as,  for  instance,  the  part  of  Washington  state  that 
borders  on  Puget  Sound,  it  assumes  a  perennial 
rather  than  a  biennial  character,  and.  the  same  is 
true  of  it  in  many  of  the  Rocky  Mountain  valleys. 

Distribution. — Happily,  this  wonderful  plant, 
too  little  valued  because  of  its  commonness,  has  a 
wide  distribution.  Like  blue  grass,  it  is  in  a  sense 
cosmopolitan  in  much  of  the  United  States  and  Can- 
ada. But  there  are  considerable  areas,  nevertheless, 
that  are  too  cold,  too  warm  or  too  dry  for  its  suc- 
cessful growth.  Among  the  first  are  the  areas  west 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  69 

of  Lake  Superior,  north  of  the  5Oth  parallel,  and 
east  of  the  Rocky  Mountains.  Among  the  second 
are  the  areas  that  lie  south  of  an  irregular  line  that 
would  probably  be  confined  within  the  states  lying 
between  the  35th  and  4Oth  parallels.  And  among 
the  third  are  the  areas  that  lie  in  the  upper  Missouri 
basin  and  southward  therefrom.  But  in  each 
instance  there  are  exceptions  to  the  limits  thus  put 
upon  the  growth  of  medium  red  clover,  for  its  suc- 
cessful production  depends  even  more  upon  altitude 
than  upon  parallels  of  latitude  and  longitude. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Medium  red  clover 
may  be  given  any  place  in  the  rotation.  But  it  is 
peculiarly  fitting  that  it  shall  be  sown  after  a  crop 
that  has  been  cultivated  with  a  view  to  cleaning  the 
soil.  When  grown  for  pasture,  however,  it  is  not 
so  necessary  that  it  shall  be  sowrn  on  clean  land  as 
when  grown  for  other  uses,  since  timely  depastur- 
ing will  prevent  nearly  all  forms  of  weed  life  from 
ripening  their  seeds  in  the  pasture.  And  it  is  good 
practice  to  follow  it  with  some  kind  of  crop  that 
requires  much  nitrogen  to  grow  it  in  good  form, 
since,  as  is  now  generally  known,  clover  has  much 
power  to  take  nitrogen  from  the  air  and  place  it  in 
the  soil.  The  roots  of  the  plants  that  immediately 
follow  the  clover  may  readily  appropriate  it.  The 
small  grains,  corn  and  sorghum,  may,  with  much 
advantage,  be  made  to  follow  clover. 

Soil. — Clay  loam  soils  that  lie  upon  a  subsoil  of 
what  may  be  termed  mild  clay  are  usually  consid- 
ered the  best  for  the  production  of  clover.  But  to 
this  there  may  be  some  exceptions.  Stiff  clay,  with 
a  subsoil  not  too  unyielding,  will  produce  good  crops 
of  clover  when  sufficient  moisture  is  present,  particu- 


7O  FORAGE    CROPS. 

larly  those  of  a  reddish  cast,  as,  for  instance,  the 
clay  lands  lying  southward  from  Duluth,  Minn.  The 
same  is  true  of  some  sandy  soils,  more  especially 
those  of  volcanic  origin,  as,  for  instance,  soils  in  the 
Flathead  valley,  Mont.  The  light  soils  of  the 
prairie,  that  sink  readily  beneath  the  tread  when 
being  cultivated,  do  not  possess  marked  adaptation 
for  the  growth  of  clover;  but  it  can  be  successfully 
grown  on  these  when  moisture  is  present  in  suffi- 
cient quantities,  and  where  the  climate  is  otherwise 
suitable.  Over  large  areas  where  clover  could  not 
be  made  to  grow  successfully  on  these  soils  when 
first  brought  under  cultivation,  it  now  grows  with 
much  certainty  as  a  pasture  crop  and  also  as  a  hay 
crop.  This  is  partly  owing  to  the  firming  of  the 
land  through  cropping  it,  and  partly,  it  is  claimed, 
to  the  increase  of  certain  bacteria  in  the  soil  favor- 
able to  the  growth  of  clover.  These,  it  is  affirmed, 
increase  in  the  soil  with  the  continued  growth  of  the 
clover.  Although  clover  will  grow  on  land  that  is 
not  rich,  it  may  be  necessary  to  enrich  some  kinds 
of  poor  soil,  as,  for  instance,  poor  sands,  before 
clover  can  be  made  to  grow  on  them  with  any 
marked  degree  of  success.  The  attempt  to  grow 
clover  successfully  on  such  lands  when  the  rainfall 
is  not  plentiful,  and  when  they  are  underlaid  with 
sand  and  gravel,  is  a  hopeless  undertaking  in  the 
absence  of  irrigating  waters. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — In  growing  clover  for 
pasture,  the  preparation  of  the  soil  is  the  same  as  in 
growing  it  for  hay.  It  is  more  commonly  sown 
along  with  a  nurse  crop,  hence  the  preparation  of 
soil  that  is  best  suited  to.  growing  the  nurse  crop 
will  also  usually  be  best  suited  to  the  growing  of  the 


PLANTS    OF    THE    C*M*VAMULM^          >J\ 


clover.  With  soils  that  are  naturally  of  a  stiff  tex- 
ture, the  aim  should  be  to  secure  a  deep  and  fine  pul- 
verization in  the  seed  bed.  Such  are  the  clays  of 
Ohio  and  of  some  states  further  east;  and  also 
those  of  Ontario  and  other  provinces  east  from 
Ontario.  With  soils  that  are  of  a  spongy  character, 
and  especially  with  those  that  lift  more  or  less 
with  the  wind,  the  aim  should  be  to  firm  the  seed 
bed  when  preparing  it.  Such  are  certain  of  the 
soils  covering  a  considerable  proportion  of  the 
upper  Mississippi  basin  and  its  tributaries.  Soils 
that  are  liable  to  be  surcharged  with  water  during 
any  considerable  portion  of  the  year  will  prove 
much  more  suitable  if  drained  before  being  laid 
down  to  clover.  In  some  instances  surface  drains 
wrill  suffice,  but  in  others  underdrains  will  be 
more  suitable. 

Sowing. — The  early  spring  will,  in  nearly  all 
instances,  be  found  the  best  time  in  which  to  sow 
clover.  But  there  may  be  localities  abundantly  sup- 
plied with  moisture  and  favored  with  mild  winters  in 
which  it  would  be  practicable  to  sow  clover  during 
the  late  summer  and  early  autumn  months.  This 
should  not  be  attempted,  however,  in  any  locality  in 
which  the  winter  temperatures  are  low.  And  while 
there  may  be  sections  subject  to  severe  frosts  after 
growth  has  begun  in  the  spring,  in  which  it  may  be 
wise  to  defer  sowing  clover  for  a  time  after  the 
ground  is  ready  to  receive  it,  as  a  rule  clover  should 
be  sown  as  early  as  practicable  in  the  spring. 

As  has  been  stated,  clover  is  usually  sown  with 
a  nurse  crop.  A  nurse  crop  is  one  that  provides  it 
with  shade  when  it  is  young.  Winter  wheat,  winter 
rye  and  barley  are  very  suitable  as  nurse  crops  for 


72  FORAGE    CROPS. 

clover,  since  the  shade  they  furnish  is  less  dense  than 
that  of  some  other  crops;  and  the  shade  is  sooner 
removed,  as  they  are  harvested  early.  The  two  first 
named  cereals  also  admit  of  early  sowing.  Spring 
wheat  and  oats  shade  the  seed  overmuch,  but  of  the 
two  spring  wheat  is  more  suitable  than  oats  as  a 
nurse  crop.  Flax  does  not  provide  a  dense  shade, 
hence  it  would  sometimes  answer  well  as  a  nurse 
crop  but  for  the  reason  that  the  later  season  at  which 
it  is  sown  makes  a  "catch"  of  the  seed  more  hazard- 
ous to  obtain. 

Some  authorities  advocate  sowing  clover  alone ; 
that  is  to  say,  sowing  it  as  the  sole  crop  on  the  land. 
There  may  be  some  instances  where  it  may  be  wise 
to  adopt  this  plan,  more  especially  where  it  is  diffi- 
cult to  get  a  stand  of  clover  because  of  the  dearth  of 
moisture.  It  is  at  least  questionable  if  this  method 
of  sowing  clover  will  ever  be  very  generally  prac- 
ticed, and  for  the  following  reasons :  First,  it  is 
not  necessary  in  moist  climates ;  second,  the  growth 
of  weeds  is  apt  to  crowd  the  clover  plants  more  than 
a  nurse  crop  of  grain  would;  and,  third,  on  some 
soils,  especially  stiff  clays,  the  shade  furnished  by 
the  nurse  crop  when  young  is  advantageous  to  the 
clover  plants  while  in  the  early  stage  of  growth.  It 
would  seem  to  be  a  better  way  where  there  is  a  fight 
for  moisture  between  the  nurse  crop  and  the  clover, 
to  sow  the  clover  along  with  oats,  using  not  more 
than  half  the  usual  quantity  of  the  seed  of  the  oats 
per  acre.  Oats  are  mentioned  because  of  the  use 
that  can  be  made  of  them  for  hay  when  they  are  har- 
vested. They  should  be  harvested  as  soon  as  the 
heads  are  fully  out,  and  sometimes  even  earlier,  that 
more  moisture  may  be  left  for  the  clover,  and  that 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  73 

more  sunlight  may  shine  upon  it  to  make  the  plants 
strong.  But  if  the  season  should  prove  moist,  the 
oats  may  be  allowed  to  stand  until  they  have 
matured. 

At  the  Central  Minnesota  experiment  station 
the  author  has  had  much  success  in  getting  a  catch 
of  clover  seed,  and  also  of  timothy  seed,  by  sowing 
these  along  with  a  mixed  crop  of  peas  and  oats, 
grown  to  provide  summer  forage  for  sheep.  The 
soil  is  a  sandy  loam,  light  enough  in  texture  to  wash 
easily.  The  clover  seed  was  sown  broadcast  at  the 
same  time  as  the  peas  and  oats,  and  covered  with 
the  harrow.  The  system  of  depasturing  will  be 
described  in  Chapter  VIII.  And  it  is  probable  that 
such  a  method  of  obtaining  a  stand  of  clover  will  be 
found  even  better  adapted  to  the  dark,  spongy  soils 
of  the  prairie,  whether  the  clover  is  sown  along  with 
peas  and  oats,  other  cereals,  or  rape,  and  whether  the 
pastures  thus  furnished  are  grazed  down  by  cattle, 
sheep  or  swine.  The  reasons  for  this  belief  are  logi- 
cal. The  tramping  of  the  ground  firms  the  soil,  and 
so  lessens  the  escape  of  moisture  by  evaporation; 
and  the  removal  of  the  nurse  crop  by  depasturing 
leaves  more  moisture  for  the  clover  than  would  be 
left  to  it  if  the  crop  were  not  grazed  down,  and  also 
lets  in  sunlight  to  strengthen  the  crop. 

Clover  seed  may  be  sown  broadcast  by  hand, 
with  any  form  of  hand  seeder  that  has  been  found 
suitable,  or  with  an  attachment  to  the  grain  drill.  It 
is  sometimes  mixed  with  the  seed  grain  and  is  sown 
along  with  it,  but  this  method  of  sowing  is  not  to  be 
commended.  The  clover,  being  the  smaller  seed, 
runs  out  more  quickly  than  the  grain,  hence  the 
"  seeding  "  is  irregular.  More  commonly  it  is  con- 


74  FORAGE    CROPS. 

sidered  preferable  to  have  the  grain  fall  before  the 
tubes  of  the  grain  drill,  that  the  seed  may  thus  be 
provided  with  a  covering. 

Whether  the  harrow  or  the  roller,  or  both,  shall 
be  used  in  covering  the  seed  is  a  question  entirely 
dependent  on  conditions.  On  prairie  soils  and  in 
localities  where  dry  weather  is  prone  to  come  early 
in  the  season,  the  seed  should  be  covered  deeply,  but 
on  clay  soils  it  should  be  covered  less  deeply.  When 
sown  on  lands  which  carry  a  crop  of  winter  wheat 
or  winter  rye,  the  harrow  should  always  be  used  to 
cover  the  seed  if  the  soil  has  dried  enough  to  admit 
of  so  doing.  When  the  seed  drops  before  the  drill 
tubes,  with  clay  soils  the  covering  furnished  by  the 
grain  tubes  which  follow  will  be  ample,  but  on  loose 
or  light  soils  it  may  still  be  necessary  to  follow  the 
drill  with  the  harrow.  And  in  a  dry  seed  time 
great  good  would  almost  certainly  result  from  fol- 
lowing the  seed  drill  with  the  roller,  and  the  roller 
with  the  harrow.  The  roller  would  impact  the  land 
and  the  harrow  would  lessen  the  tendency  to  evapo- 
ration in  the  soil,  and  also  the  tendency  to  be  lifted 
by  the  winds.  In  the  states  and  provinces  east  of  the 
upper  Mississippi  basin,  when  clover  is  broadcasted 
on  land  that  has  been  sown  with  some  spring  cereal 
the  roller  alone  will  provide  an  ample  covering  for 
the  clover  seed. 

Cultivation. — Medium  red  clover  does  not,  of 
course,  require  any  cultivation  after  it  has  been 
sown.  But  there  may  be  instances  in  which  the  har- 
row may  be  used  as  an  aid  to  the  re-seeding  of  pas- 
ture lands,  when  it  is  not  considered  desirable  to 
plow  them  up.  If  the  clover  on  these  has  not 
been  cropped  too  closely  many  clover  heads  will 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  75 

mature  their  seeds.  These  in  due  time  will  fall  to 
the  ground.  The  following  spring  the  harrow  may 
be  made  to  render  good  service  by  running  it  over 
these  lands  as  early  as  possible.  It  helps  to  bury  the 
seed,  and  as  the  seed  remains  in  the  seed  sacs,  it  is 
almost  certain  to  grow.  The  harrowing  may  also 
be  done  so  late  in  the  fall  that  the  seed  will  not 
sprout  previously  to  the  coming  of  the  winter.  The 
benefit  from  this  form  of  re-seeding  will  be  depend- 
ent upon  such  conditions  as  relate  to  soil  and  climate. 
Much  of  the  soil  of  the  prairie  seems  to  be  adapted  to 
this  form  of  re-seeding.  There  are  localities  in 
which  it  is  possible  to  maintain  a  clover  pasture  for 
years  by  the  adoption  of  this  method. 

Pasturing. — Common  or  medium  red  clover 
should  not  be  pastured  off  ordinarily  the  same  year 
it  was  sown.  Such  pasturing  removes  the  covering 
that  would  otherwise  protect  the  roots  of  the  clover 
in  winter.  And  if  done  early  in  the  season  it  would 
also  hinder  root  development.  But  there  may  be 
instances  in  which  the  growth  of  the  clover  would 
be  so  luxuriant  that  it  would  be  proper  to  pasture  it 
off  to  prevent  smothering  in  the  winter,  especially  in 
localities  where  a  heavy  snowfall  may  be  expected. 

The  second  season  after  sowing  the  clover  is 
that  in  which  it  provides  an  abundance  of  pas- 
ture. In  grazing  live  stock  upon  it  the  aim  should 
be  to  keep  it  so  cropped  off  that  it  will  not  become 
rank  and  coarse,  otherwise  much  of  it  is  liable  to  be 
trodden  down  rather  than  eaten  off.  If  the  clover 
should  grow  so  rapidly  as  to  get  ahead  of  the  needs 
^)f  the  stock,  the  mower  should  be  run  over  the  field 
not  later  than  the  blossoming  stage  of  the  clover. 
The  clover  so  cut  may  remain  on  the  field  as  a 


76  FORAGE    CROPS. 

mulch,  or  it  may  be  cured  for  hay,  as  desired.  Swine 
pastures  especially  will  be  benefited  by  this  mode  of 
treatment,  and  in  any  event  it  will  hinder  the  matur- 
ing of  weed  seeds. 

There  is  no  better  method  of  obtaining  a  crop  of 
medium  red  clover  seed  than  by  pasturing  the  clover 
closely  for  a  time,  and  then  removing  the  stock. 
The  pasturing  should  begin  as  soon  as  the  growth 
in  the  clover  plants  will  warrant  turning  in  the 
stock.  The  season  for  removing  the  stock  will  vary 
with  the  locality  an,d  with  the  rainfall,  but  in  any 
event  it  should  take  place  from,  say,  ten  to  fifteen 
days  earlier  than  the  period  when  the  clover  not  so 
pastured  would  be  in  bloom.  Clover  plants  thus 
managed  seem  capable  of  bearing  more  and  better 
seed  than  those  which  come  into  flower  before  they 
are  cut  to  be  made  into  hay.  After  the  seed  has  been 
removed,  another  season  of  pasturing  may  follow^ 
but  the  production  of  seed  lessens  the  power  of  the 
plants  to  grow  pasture. 

After  the  first  cutting  of  the  clover  has  been 
made  in  order  to  provide  hay,  an  abundance  of  pas- 
ture will  usually  be  furnished  by  the  clover  the  same 
season,  providing  a  crop  of  seed  or  a  second  crop  of 
hay  is  not  desired.  As  the  weather  at  that  season 
is  usually  drier  than  in  the  spring,  the  live  stock 
should  not  be  turned  in  on  the  clover  until  it  has 
made  considerable  growth,  as  then  it  furnishes  more 
or  less  shade,  which  tends  to  lessen  evaporation. 

Medium  red"  clover  furnishes  excellent  pasture 
for  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine.  But  sometimes 
there  is  hazard  in  turning  cattle  and  sheep  into  a 
clover  pasture,  more  especially  when  the  plants  are 
very  succulent,  and  the  hazard  is  increased  when 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  77 

they  are  wet  with  dew  or  rain.  If  the  cattle  or 
sheep  are  hungry  they  will  eat  so  freely  of  the  clover 
that  hoven  or  bloating  may  follow.  Unless  treat- 
ment is  promptly  given  they  are  pretty  certain  to 
die.  The  treatment  suitable  is  given  on  Page  162, 
Observation  4. 

Observations. — i.  The  common  or  medium  red 
clover  is  not  specially  adapted  for  being  grown  in 
permanent  pastures  because  of  its  short-lived  habit 
of  growth.  It  may  be  well  to  sow  it  in  these,  but 
only  in  limited  quantities  and  with  the  expectation 
that  it  will  nearly  all  disappear  at  the  end  of  two 
or  three  years. 

2.  When  medium  clover  is  to  be  sown  on  clay 
lands  or  black  loam  soils,  where  it  is  liable  to  "  lift  " 
or  "  heave  "  with  the  frost  in  the  spring,  such  heav- 
ing or  lifting  may  be  avoided  in  a  very  considerable 
degree  by  first  draining  the  lands.     The  heaving  is 
caused  by  the  alternate  freezing  and  thawing  of  the 
lands  that  are  surcharged  with  moisture. 

3.  Much    fall    pasture    may   be    furnished    in 
localities  that  are  favored  with  an  ample  supply  of 
rainfall  by  sowing  medium  clover  with  all  the  cereal 
crops  grown,  even  though  the  land  is  to  be  plowed 
again  in  the  late  autumn  or  in  the  spring  following. 
Much  pasture  may  thus  be  obtained,  especially  in 
"dropping"  or  showery  seasons,  to  say  nothing  of 
the  plant  food  put  into  the  land.     But  what  is  termed 
"heavy  seeding"  should  not  be  resorted  to,  lest  a 
period  of  dry  weather  should  follow,  when  the  seed 
would  be  lost.     Less  than  half  the  usual  quantity 
sown  would  be  enough  to  risk  thus. 

4.  In  seasons  where  clover  is  usually  grown  in 
short  .rotations  and  where  seed  crops  are  frequently 


/8  FORAGE    CROPS. 

harvested  from  it,  much  seed  becomes  stored  in  the 
land.  A  portion  of  what  is  thus  lodged  in  the  soil 
is  brought  near  the  surface  by  the  ordinary  processes 
of  cultivation,  and  in  due  time  it  grows.  The 
clover,  as  it  were,  "  seeds  "  itself,  and  it  thus  fur- 
nishes much  autumn  pasture  without  any  cost  to  the 
grower. 

MAMMOTH  CLOVER. 

Mammoth  clover  (Trifolium  medium),  as  the 
name  would  indicate,  makes  a  strong  and  vigorous 
growth  on  soils  possessed  of  the  requisite  adapta- 
tion. Like  the  common  red  clover,  it  is  a  biennial, 
although  to  this  habit  of  growth  there  are  some 
exceptions.  On  soils  with  a  marked  adaptation  for 
growing  mammoth  clover  it  will  live  longer  than  in 
those  opposite  in  character.  The  same  result  will 
follow  if  the  climatic  conditions  are  just  right.  And 
if  hindered  from  producing  seed,  as,  for  instance, 
when  it  is  pastured,  its  life  period  will  be  prolonged. 
It  resembles  the  common  red  in  the  form  of  the 
leaves,  the  shape  and  color  of  the  blossoms,  and  in 
the  general  habit  of  its  growth  as  to  form  in  top  and 
root.  And  it  differs  from  the  same — first,  in  the 
greater  size  of  the  stems  and  heads;  second,  in  the 
greater  hight  to  which  it  grows;  third,  in  the  later 
season  at  which  it  matures;  fourth,  in  the  greater 
size  of  the  roots  and  in  the  greater  depth  to  which 
they  penetrate ;  and,  fifth,  in  its  inability  to  produce 
two  crops  of  hay  in  one  season,  or  to  provide  an 
abundance  of  pasture  after  the  usual  season  for  seed 
production.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  mam- 
moth clover  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  provide  pasture 
as  the  medium  red;  but  there  is  a  place  for  it,  and 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  79 

that  place  will  be  found,  in  many  instances  at  least, 
on  soils  where  medium  red  clover  will  grow  but  not 
with  marked  vigor.  The  mammoth  being  a  stronger 
plant,  it  has  more  power  to  gather  plant  food  in 
the  soil. 

Distribution. — The  distribution  of  mammoth 
clover  is  much  the  same  as  the  distribution  of  the 
medium  red  variety.  (See  Page  68.)  Where  the 
one  will  grow  so  will  the  other,  at  least  measurably 
well.  So  far  as  the  two  varieties  have  been  tried 
this  result  has  been  noticed.  The  mammoth  clover, 
however,  has  not  yet  been  grown  over  so  wide  an 
area  as  the  medium  red,  hence  it  is  possible  that 
there  may  be  localities  where  one  of  these  varieties 
only  will  flourish,  but  if  so  these  have  not  hitherto 
been  defined. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Mammoth  clover 
should  be  given  the  same  place  in  the  rotation  as  the 
medium  red  clover.  (See  Page  69.)  It  should  be 
sown  for  pasture,  therefore,  in  short  rotations,  and 
should  follow,  when  practicable,  a  cultivated  crop, 
to  be  succeeded  by  a  grain  crop. 

Soil. — The  soils  suited  to  mammoth  clover  are 
substantially  the  same  as  those  suited  to  the  medium 
red  variety.  (See  Page  69.)  Since  mammoth 
clover,  however,  would  seem  to  have  greater  power 
to  gather  plant  food  in  the  soil  than  the  medium  red, 
it  is  relatively  better  adapted  to  lands  not  well  sup- 
plied with  fertility.  And  as  it  sends  its  roots  deeper 
into  the  soil,  it  is  better  able  to  withstand  drouth 
in  dry  seasons,  and  also  the  influences  that  cause 
heaving  or  lifting  in  dry  soils  supplied  with  too 
much  moisture  in  the  season  of  freezing  and  thaw- 
ing. ,  Mammoth  clover,  therefore,  has,  in  some 


80  FORAGE    CROPS. 

instances,  found  more  favor  in  the  sandy  soils 
and  even  in  the  loam  soils  of  the  prairies  that 
border  on  the  semi-arid  region  east  of  the  Rocky 
mountains. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — Preparing  the  soil  for 
mammoth  clover  is  substantially  the  same  as  prepar- 
ing it  for  the  medium  red  variety.  ( See  Page  70. ) 
But  it  is  even  more  important  with  mammoth  clover 
to  have  the  ground  deeply  plowed  previous  to  the 
growing  of  the  cultivated  or  other  crop  that  pre- 
cedes the  clover,  that  its  roots  may  readily  push 
down  into  the  soil.  This  is  not  inconsistent 
with  firming  spongy  soils  subsequent  to  the  deep 
plowing. 

Sowing. — The  various  methods  given  as  suit- 
able for  sowing  red  clover  are  the  same  as  those  that 
should  be  adopted  in  sowing  mammoth  clover.  (  See 
Page  71.)  The  amount  of  seed  required  to  pro- 
vide pasture  will  depend  upon  the  fact  as  to  whether 
it  is  to  be  sown  alone  or  in  combination  with  other 
kinds  of  pasture  plants.  When  sown  alone  not 
less,  probably,  than  ten  pounds  of  seed  per  acre 
should  be  used,  as  the  seed  is  somewhat  larger  than 
that  of  the  medium  clover.  And  when  the  condi- 
tions are  not  all  favorable,  it  would  be  good  practice 
to  sow  a  larger  quantity  of  seed.  When  sown  with 
the  seeds  of  other  pasture  plants,  the  quantity  of 
seed  used  should  be  proportionately  reduced.  More 
pasture  will  be  furnished  where  mammoth  clover  is 
sown  along  with  medium  red  clover,  as  the  latter 
grows  vigorously  in  the  spring  and  in  the  autumn, 
and  the  former  is  at  its  best  in  the  late  spring  and 
early  summer.  When  thus  grown,  equal  parts  of 
the  seed  of  each  variety  may  be  used. 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  8 1 

Cultivation. — As  with  medium  red  clover,  no 
cultivation  is  required.  (See  Page  74.)  What  is 
said  of  medium  clover  under  the  head  of  cultivation 
will  apply  equally  to  the  mammoth  variety. 

Pasturing. — Much  of  what  has  been  stated  in 
regard  to  the  pasturing  of  medium  red  clover  will 
apply  with  equal  propriety  to  the  pasturing  of  mam- 
moth clover.  (See  Page  75.)  Like  medium 
clover,  it  will  furnish  pasture  well  adapted  to  the 
needs  of  all  kinds  of  live  stock  grown  upon  the  farm. 
Animals  may  be  turned  in  on  it  as  soon  in  the 
spring  as  it  will  furnish  them  plentifully  with  food. 
It  is  even  more  important  not  to  let  the  clover  get 
beyond  the  power  of  the  animals  to  crop  it  back  than 
when  pasturing  the  medium  variety.  And  it  is 
equally  important  that  cattle  and  sheep  shall  not  be 
allowed  to  pasture  upon  it  at  will  while  hungry, 
more  especially  when  it  is  wet  from  dew  or  rain.  It 
will  not  furnish  much  pasture  in  the  autumn, 
whether  it  has  been  grazed  during  the  season  pre- 
viously or  cut  for  hay. 

When  the  clover  is  to  be  cut  for  seed,  it  may 
sometimes  prove  an  excellent  plan  to  graze  it  off 
closely  for  a  time  in  the  early  spring,  lest  the  ener- 
gies of  the  plants  become  too  much  concerned  in  the 
production  of  a  superabundant  growth  of  stems 
and  leaves.  On  soils  pre-eminently  adapted  to 
the  growth  of  clover  this  precaution  should  not  be 
neglected. 

While  the  pasturing  should  be  close,  it  should 
not  be  long  continued,  or  the  development  of  the 
plants  may  not  be  sufficient  to  produce  a  maximum 
crop  of  seed.  This  result  is  certain  to  follow  pro- 
longed-pasturing  if  the  weather  should  turn  dry.  It 
6 


82  FORAGE    CROPS. 

is  better,  therefore,  to  run  some  hazard  from  over 
vigor  in  the  growth  of  the  plants  than  from  insuffi- 
cient development,  since  the  loss  is  likely  to  be  less. 
On  some  soils  it  may  not  be  necessary  to  pasture 
thus  to  any  extent. 

Observations. — i.  Mammoth  clover  is  not  well 
adapted  for  permanent  pastures,  since  it  is  not  usu- 
ally perennial  in  its  habit  of  growth.  Nevertheless, 
it  may  be  sown  as  a  part  of  the  mixture  with  the 
expectation  that  it  will  live  for  two  years  and  pos- 
sibly for  a  longer  period. 

2.  This  clover  makes  an  excellent  fertilizer  to 
plow  under,  because  of  the  great  bulk  of  the  green 
product  that  it  furnishes,  and  because  of  the  great 
mass  of  vegetable  matter  in  the  root  growth.  When 
grown  for  this  purpose,  it  may  be  advantageous 
sometimes  to  let  it  grow  up  until  near  the  blossom- 
ing stage  and  then  to  pasture  off  the  more  palatable 
portions  previous  to  plowing  under  the  residue. 

ALSIKE    CLOVER. 

Alsike  clover  (Trifolium  hybridum)  is  distin- 
guished from  the  common  red  or  medium  clover, 
first,  by  the  finer  and  more  recumbent  character  of 
the  growth ;  second,  by  the  later  season  at  which  it 
matures ;  third,  by  its  inability  to  produce  much  pas- 
ture after  the  season  of  maturity;  fourth,  by  the 
pinkish  rather  than  the  blood  red  tinge  which  char- 
acterizes its  blossoms;  fifth,  by  the  much  less  size  of 
the  roots;  and,  sixth,  by  its  perennial  rather  than 
biennial  habit  of  growth.  The  roots  do  not  go 
down  so  deeply  into  the  soil,  hence  it  has  less  power 
to  withstand  prolonged  drouth  on  the  uplands.  It 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  83 

is  much  superior  to  the  common  red  in  providing 
honey  for  bees,  and  it  is  also  better  adapted  for 
being  grown  along  with  timothy,  first,  because  it 
ripens  at  the  same  time;  and,  second,  because 
ordinarily  it  crowds  the  timothy  less  than  the  com- 
mon red.  It  can  withstand  lower  temperatures  than 
the  common  red,  hence  the  limit  of  its  growth  is 
further  north  than  that  of  the  other.  And  when 
supplied  with  moisture  it  would  seem  to  be  adapted 
to  temperatures  equally  warm.  It  can  usually  be 
grown  in  good  form  between  the  4Oth  and  5Oth  par- 
allels of  north  latitude,  from  the  Atlantic  to  the 
Pacific,  when  sown  on  soils  with  the  requisite  adap- 
tation ;  and  south  of  the  4Oth  parallel  it  can  also  be 
profitably  grown  under  certain  conditions. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Alsike  clover,  like  the 
medium  red,  should  be  sown  on  soils  that  have  been 
previously  cropped  with  grain,  and  to  such  an  extent 
that  they  require  an  increase  of  nitrogen  and  of  veg- 
etable matter.  The  clover  roots  will  supply  both 
of  these.  If  the  crop  immediately  preceding  the 
clover  has  been  a  cultivated  crop,  and  if  it  has  been 
suitably  cared  for,  the. soil  will  be  in  a  condition  to 
grow  the  clover  without  any  injurious  admixture  of 
weeds.  Cereal  crops,  or  corn  should  follow  the 
clover.  Alsike  clover  is  not  a  good  rotation  crop, 
because  of  its  perennial  habit  of  growth.  When- 
ever a  stand  has  been  secured  it  is  usual  to  pasture 
it,  or  to  cut  it  for  hay  for  several  years. 

Soils. — Alsike  clover  has  special  adaptation  for 
clay  soils,  for  clay  loam  soils,  and  for  the  soils  of  the 
bottom  lands  of  the  Rocky  mountain  region  that  lies 
within  the  clover  belt.  It  thrives  well  on  the  stiffest 
clays.  It  thrives  better  on  loam  soils  well  supplied 


84  FORAGE    CROPS. 

with  humus  and  underlaid  with  clay;  and,  judging 
by  the  tests  that  have  been  made,  it  would  seem 
to  thrive  best  on  the  deposit  soils  of  the  Rocky 
mountain  basins.  But  moisture  must  be  present  in 
goodly  supply  before  it  can  grow  well  on  any  soil. 
The  slough  lands  of  the  prairie  regions  would  seem 
to  have  special  adaptation  for  Alsike  clover  when 
water  is  not  present  in  too  plentiful  supply.  On 
such  soils  it  may  be  submerged  for  days  at  a  time 
without  injury  in  the  early  springtime,  but  the 
waters  that  cover  it  must,  of  course,  be  quite  shal- 
low. It  will  not  grow  well  on  sandy  or  gravelly 
soils,  poorly  supplied  with  the  elements  of  fertility. 
The  clay  loam  soils  of  the  Puget  Sound  country, 
with  the  abundance  of  moisture  which  they  possess, 
furnish  a  perfect  paradise  for  Alsike  clover. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — The  preparation  of 
the  soil  for  Alsike  clover  is  essentially  the  same  as  for 
medium  clover.  (See  Page  70.)  And  there  are 
localities  where  this  clover  can  be  sown  on  newly 
cleared  lands  without  any  other  preparation  than 
that  of  removing  the  timber  in  whole  or  in  part  that 
grew  upon  them.  Of  course,  if  the  fire  has  been 
made  to  consume  a  part  of  the  waste  timber,  or  all 
of  it,  the  "catch"  of  the  seed  will  be  more  satisfac- 
tory. Even  harrowing  may  not  be  necessary.  Such 
are  the  timber  lands  west  of  the  Cascade  mountains. 
Some  grasses,  as  blue  grass,  for  instance,  should  be 
sown  along  with  the  clover.  The  small  white 
clover  will  soon  come,  as  it  were,  spontaneously  on 
such  lands. 

Sowing. — Nearly  all  that  has  been  said  with 
reference  to  the  sowing  of  medium  red  clover  will 
also  apply  to  the  sowing  of  Alsike  clover.  ( See  Page 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  85 

71.)  The  aim  should  be,  however,  to  cover  the 
seed  of  the  Alsike  less  deeply,  since  it  is  a  much 
smaller  seed.  The  proper  depth  will,  of  course, 
depend  upon  conditions.  In  moist  New  England, 
in  some  states  further  west,  in  eastern  Canada  and 
in  the  Puget  Sound  district,  the  tubes  of  the  grain 
drill  as  they  deposit  the  nurse  crop  will  sufficiently 
cover  the  seed  that  has  been  dropped  or  scattered 
before  the  drill.  In  the  absence  of  a  grain  drill  the 
roller  will  provide  a  sufficient  covering.  But  in  the 
prairie  soils  of  the  upper  Mississippi  basin  a  light 
harrow  will  not  cover  the  seed  too  deeply. 

To  provide  pasture,  Alsike  clover  is  more  com- 
monly sown  along  with  some  other  kind  of  grass  or 
clover,  as,  for  instance,  timothy,  orchard  grass,  Ken- 
tucky blue  grass,  and  medium  red  clover.  But  it 
may  also  be  sown  alone.  Wherever  orchard  grass  will 
flourish,  Alsike  clover  and  blue  grass  make  an  excel- 
lent combination  along  with  it  in  providing  pasture, 
since  the  two  grasses  grow  both  early  and  late  in 
the  season,  and  the  clover  is  at  its  best  in  the  early 
summer.  On  the  slough  soils  of  the  prairie,  Alsike 
clover,  timothy,  and  blue  grass  or  red  top  make  a 
good  pasture. 

The  amount  of  seed  required  will  be  dependent 
chiefly  on  the  grasses  along  with  which  the  clover  is 
sown.  If  sown  alone,  four  pounds  of  seed  per  acre 
will.be  found  sufficient  in  nearly  all  soils.  If  sown 
along  with  other  grasses,  the  quantity  must  needs 
be  proportionately  decreased. 

Cultivation. — Alsike  clover,  like  the  other 
kinds,  does  not  require  to  be  cultivated.  But  on 
suitable  soils  it  may  be  made  to  re-seed  itself,  and 
thus  to  retain  its  hold  upon  the  ground  for  many 


86  FORAGE    CROPS. 

years.  The  method  by  which  this  end  may  be 
accomplished  is  substantially  the  same  as  that  given 
for  securing  the  re-seeding  of  the  medium  red 
clover.  (See  Page  74.)  But  with  Alsike  clover 
this  end  is  more  easily  attained  than  with  the  com- 
mon red,  since  heads  of  matured  seed  uneaten  by 
the  live  stock  are  apt  to  be  more  numerous  because 
of  the  more  recumbent  character  of  the  growth  of 
the  clover.  It  is  also  a  hardier  plant.  However, 
on  some  soils,  particularly  those  of  a  stiff  character, 
it  would  not  be  wise  thus  to  perpetuate  clover 
pastures. 

Pasturing. — When  Alsike  clover  is  sown  alone, 
it  may  be  pastured  continuously  after  it  has  made  a 
good  start  in  the  spring.  But  it  will  not  produce 
much  growth  after  the  season  for  maturing  the 
seed;  that  is  to  say,  after  the  period  about  simulta- 
neous with  the  ripening  of  the  barley  crop.  Because 
of  this  habit  of  growth  the  value  of  Alsike  clover  as 
a  pasture  crop  is  materially  decreased.  As  with 
other  kinds  of  clover,  more  pasture  will  be  obtained 
where  the  cropping  is  not  too  close.  When  the  pas- 
ture is  grazed  too  closely,  the  hot  sun  produces  a 
more  rapid  evaporation  on  the  unshaded  ground, 
and  it  further  weakens  the  chance  of  the  plants  to 
grow  because  of  cramped  breathing  capacity.  Close 
cropping  in  the  autumn  increases  the  hazard  to  the 
plants  from  cold  winds  and  severe  frosts,  since  it 
completely  removes  the  covering  that  would  other- 
wise aid  in  protecting  them. 

Alsike  clover  pasture  is  relished  by  all  kinds 
of  live  stock  grown  upon  the  farm ;  and  there  would 
seem  to  be  less  danger  of  hoven  when  animals  are 
feeding  upon  it  than  when  feeding  upon  medium  red 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  87 

or  mammoth  clover  pastures.  This  point,  however, 
has  not  been  unequivocally  established. 

When  Alsike  clover  is  wanted  for  seed,  it  may 
be  advantageous  to  pasture  it  for  a  time  after  it  has 
begun  to  grow  in  the  spring.  The  pasturing  should 
be  close  as  long  as  it  is  continued,  to  secure  uniform- 
ity in  the  subsequent  development  of  the  crop. 
Such  pasturing  will  prevent  overluxuriance  in  the 
growth  of  the  clover  on  soils  and  in  seasons  when 
such  overgrowth  is  to  be  feared.  The  energies 
of  the  plant  are  thus  diverted  from  the  over- 
production of  stems  and  leaves  to  the  production 
of  seed. 

The  duration  of  the  pasturing  given  to  these 
seed  crops  cannot  be  stated,  as  it  will  vary  with  the 
character  of  the  season.  On  some  soils,  as,  for 
instance,  stiff  clays,  pasturing  is  not  required,  and  in 
any  event  the  pasturing  should  not  be  long  contin- 
ued, lest  it  should  prevent  the  plants  from  making 
growth  enough  to  produce  seed  plentifully. 

Observations. — i.  Alsike  clover  is  well  suited 
for  being  sown  with  mixtures  of  grass  seeds 
used  in  making  permanent  pastures,  because  of 
its  hardihood  and  because  of  its  perennial  habit 
of  growth. 

2.  A  stand  of  Alsike  clover  may  not  infre- 
quently be  obtained  in  slough  lands  of  the  prairie  by 
scattering  the  seed  on  the  native  sod  in  the  early 
spring.  If  the  native  grass  can  be  cut  early  or  pas- 
tured off  after  the  young  clover  plants  have  made  a 
good  start,  the  clover  will  be  much  benefited.  But 
in  dry  summers  a  stand  of  the  clover  is  not  likely  to 
be  secured. 

3..  Alsike  clover  and  timothy  are  well  adapted 


88  FORAGE    CROPS. 

for  being  grown  together,  whether  for  hay  or  for 
pasture,  since  both  grow  well  on  humus  soils 

CRIMSON  CLOVER. 

Crimson  or  scarlet  clover  (Trifolium  incarna- 
tum)  is  so  called  from  the  beautiful  rich  bloom  of 
the  heads  when  in  flower.  It  is  said  to  be  a  native 
of  Central  and  Southern  Europe.  Until  quite 
recently  it  has  not  been  tested  in  many  of  the  states 
of  the  Union,  hence  its  precise  value  as  a  forage 
crop  in  localities  where  it  has  not  been  proved  cannot 
be  stated. 

Crimson  clover  is  an  annual,  but  has  a  semi- 
biennial  habit  of  growth,  since  it  is  sown  in  the 
summer  and  matures  its  seeds  in  the  springtime  of 
the  following  year.  It  is  more  upright  in  its  habit 
of  growth  than  some  of  the  other  clovers,  and  it  has 
probably  a  less  proportion  of  leaf  growth  to  the 
stems.  It  grows  from  twelve  to  thirty  inches 
high,  according  to  conditions,  and  reaches  maturity 
in  time  to  be  followed  with  divers  other  crops,  as 
corn,  sorghum,  and  various  garden  vegetables.  The 
blossoms  are  cone-shaped,  with  much  of  length  in 
proportion  to  the  diameter,  and  the  bloom  is  of  the 
richest  crimson  or  scarlet.  A  field  in  the  meridian 
of  blossoming  is  a  beautiful  sight. 

Distribution. — As  stated  previously,  crimson 
clover  has  not  been  fully  tested  in  some  of  the  states 
of  the  Union,  hence  it  is  impossible  in  the  present 
state  of  our  knowledge  to  speak  with  sufficient  defi- 
niteness  as  to  where  it  can  or  cannot  be  profitably 
grown  as  a  pasture  crop,  or  indeed  for  any  purpose. 
And  the  difficulty  is  increased  by  the  contradictory 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  89 

character  of  the  reports  that  have  been  published  in 
regard  to  it  from  the  same  localities.  Some  of  these 
refer  to  it  as  a  total  failure,  and  others  speak  of  it  as 
an  encouraging  success.  These  contradictory 
reports  arise,  doubtless,  from  variations  in  the  sea- 
sons and  in  the  mode  of  growing  it. 

Speaking  in  a  general  way,  the  growth  of 
crimson  clover  is  attended  with  more  or  less  of  haz- 
ard north  of  40  degrees ;  that  is  to  say,  north  of  the 
cities  of  Philadelphia,  Columbus  and  Denver,  and 
east  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  Nevertheless,  there 
are  some  exceptions.  In  Delaware,  for  instance,  it 
is  a  success.  In  some  parts  of  Pennsylvania  and 
New  York  it  has  proved  satisfactory;  and  in  por- 
tions of  other  states  north  of  the  line  named  it  has 
been  grown  with  success.  But  within  the  limits 
mentioned  there  will  be  more  or  less  of  hazard  in 
growing  crimson  clover,  according  as  the  winter  is 
propitious  or  otherwise.  In  experiments  conducted 
by  direction  of  the  author  at  the  Ontario  experiment 
station,  at  Guelph,  the  clover  failed  to  pass  through 
the  winter  alive.  Unless,  therefore,  the  habit  of 
growth  can  be  so  changed  that  the  plant  will  success- 
fully fulfill  its  mission  in  one  season,  it  is  not  likely 
to  prove  a  treasure  to  very  much  of  the  area  that  has 
been  set  down  as  doubtful  or  prohibitory. 

Of  course,  in  the  bench  lands  between  the 
Rocky  mountain  ranges,  and  in  the  river  bottoms, 
crimson  clover  is  not  likely  to  prove  a  success,  unless 
when  grown  under  irrigation,  and  reports  from 
growing  it  thus  do  not  as  yet  seem  to  be  forthcom- 
ing. On  the  Pacific  slopes  of  Oregon  and  Wash- 
ington and  of  British  Columbia  it  will  doubtless 
grow;  though  but  little  tried  hitherto.  It  should  be 


go  FORAGE    CROPS. 

capable  of  furnishing  early  pasture  in  the  spring 
time  in  that  region  of  mild  winters. 

Crimson  clover  can  be  grown  with  success  in 
much  of  the  area  south  of  the  4Oth  parallel,  and  east 
of  a  line  running  irregularly  down  through  the 
states  of  Missouri,  Arkansas  and  Louisiana,  and  not 
far  from  the  western  border  of  these  states.  In 
other  words,  crimson  clover  would  seem  to  have  the 
least  adaptation  for  those  states  and  provinces  that 
are  far  enough  north  to  grow  the  medium  red  clover 
at  its  best.  And  it  would  seem  to  have  the  highest 
adaptation  to  localities  with  weather  too  warm  to 
grow  that  species  of  clover  at  its  best. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — In  the  rotation  crimson 
clover  should  be  grown  as  a  catch  crop;  that  is  to 
say,  it  should  follow  some  crop  that  has  been  har- 
vested one  season,  and  should  precede  some  crop  to 
be  grown  immediately  after  the  clover  the  following 
season.  The  plan  of  growing  it  on  land  that  needs 
to  be  enriched  is  a  wise  one,  hence  it  will  frequently 
be  sown  after  a  grain  crop,  and  before  some  culti- 
vated crop  that  does  not  of  necessity  require  to  be 
planted  early  the  following  season.  Crimson  clover 
is,  therefore,  commonly  grown  without  missing  a 
crop.  Not  infrequently  it  is  sown  annually  in 
orchards  that  are  in  bearing,  and  plowed  under  to 
feed  the  fruit  trees  from  year  to  year. 

Soil. — Crimson  clover  grows  best  on  a  warm 
soil ;  that  is  to  say,  on  a  soil  of  open  texture  and  with 
good  drainage.  It  has  special  adaptation,  therefore, 
to  loam  soils  with  a  free  admixture  of  sand  in  them. 
But  if  the  clover  is  to  grow  vigorously  on  these  soils 
it  is  necessary,  first,  that  moisture  shall  be  present  in 
the  growing  season ;  and,  second,  that  sufficient  fer- 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  9 1 

tility  shall  be  present  in  the  soil  or  supplied  to  it  to 
give  the  clover  a  good  start.  The  average  prairie 
soils  do  not  seem  to  furnish  the  proper  food  con- 
stituents, and  in  stiff  clay  soils  the  roots  of  the  clover 
cannot  gather  food  with  sufficient  haste. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — In  preparing  the  soil  for 
crimson  clover  much  will  depend  upon  the  condi- 
tions. When  sown  amid  corn  or  cotton  the  cultiva- 
tion given  to  these  crops  is  a  sufficient  preparation 
of  the  soil.  After  potatoes  and  early  market  garden 
crops,  cultivating  and  then  harrowing  the  ground 
should  put  it  in  good  condition  to  receive  the  seed. 
When  sown  after  grain,  success  has  followed  simply 
harrowing  the  land,  and  in  other  instances  first  cul- 
tivating and  then  harrowing  it ;  but  more  commonly 
there  is  hazard  in  sowing  it  thus.  In  orchards  in  full 
bearing  the  cultivation  that  is  usually  given  to  the 
trees  is  a  sufficient  preparation.  In  preparing  the  soil 
the  aim  should  be  to  secure  a  fine  and  moist  seed  bed, 
hence  when  the  land  is  plowed  in  making  it  ready  for 
crimson  clover,  a  free  use  should  be  made  of  the 
roller  and  harrow,  unless  peculiar  conditions,  as  ex- 
cessive rainfall,  should  render  this  work  unnecessary. 

Sowing. — Crimson  clover  seed  is  more  gen- 
erally sown  from  July  ist  to  October  1st,  according 
to  the  locality.  Ordinarily  the  more  southerly  the 
latitude  the  later  may  the  seed  be  sown  without  the 
hazard  of  being  winterkilled.  If  sown  in  the  early 
spring  the  growth  made  is  seldom  satisfactory,  and 
the  presence  of  the  clover  hinders  the  growing  of 
another  crop  the  same  season.  The  seed  is  sown  by 
the  same  methods  as  other  kinds  of  clover  seed ;  that 
is  to  say,  it  may  be  broadcasted  by  hand  or  other- 
wise and  covered  with  the  harrow,  or  it  may  be  sown 


92  FORAGE    CROPS. 

with  a  grain  drill  that  will  properly  do  such  work,  or 
it  may  be  dropped  with  the  grass  seeder  attachment 
to  the  grain  drill,  as,  for  instance,  when  it  is  sown 
with  a  nurse  crop. 

Ordinarily  the  seed  of  crimson  clover  is  not 
sown  with  a  nurse  crop,  but  sometimes  it  is  sown 
with  cowpeas.  When  thus  sown  the  soil  is  more 
commonly  infertile,  and  the  peas  are  grown  to  pro- 
tect the  clover  plants  in  the  winter  after  the  frost 
has  killed  the  cowpeas.  When  sown  with  winter 
oats  or  winter  rye  the  clover  is  prone  to  crowd  these 
crops,  as  it  continues  to  grow  in  weather  too  cool  to 
admit  of  growth  in  the  oats  or  the  rye.  On  some 
soils  these  results  will  be  reversed.  But  judicious 
pasturing  should  prevent  injury  from  this  source. 
When  rape  is  sown  with  the  crimson  clover  it  should 
be  early  in  the  season  rather  than  late,  so  that  both 
plants  would  have  time  to  make  a  good  growth  and 
thus  furnish  fall  pasture ;  and  if  the  rape  survived  the 
winter  the  two  plants  could  be  pastured  again 
in  the  spring. 

The  amount  of  seed  to  sow  will  vary  with  sev- 
eral conditions.  When  sown  as  the  sole  crop,  more 
than  fifteen  pounds  per  acre  of  the  clover  seed  should 
not  be  required,  and  usually  less  than  that  amount 
will  suffice.  Heavy  seeding  is  to  be  preferred  when 
the  clover  is  to  be  plowed  under  as  a  fertilizer.  When 
sown  as  part  of  a  mixed  crop  to  provide  pasture,  a 
few  pounds  of  the  clover  seed  per  acre  will  suffice. 
The  grower  can  best  learn  by  his  own  or  by  his 
neighbor's  experience  how  to  adapt  the  quantities  of 
the  respective  seeds  used  to  the  soil  conditions. 

Cultivation.  —  No  cultivation  is  ordinarily 
required  on  crimson  clover.  But  there  may  be 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  93 

instances  when  the  harrow  can  be  used  upon  it  with 
advantage. 

Pasturing. — Although  crimson  clover  has  been 
grown  more  as  a  fertilizer  than  to  provide  pasture, 
its  mission  in  furnishing  pasture  and  also  soiling 
food  is  an  important  one.  When  the  strength  of 
the  clover  growing  alone  or  in  combination  with 
other  crops  will  justify  so  doing,  it  should  of  course 
be  pastured,  but  not  so  closely  as  to  endanger  its 
passing  the  winter  safely.  Any  kind  of  domestic 
animals  upon  the  farm  may  be  grazed  upon  it.  It 
furnishes  pasture  early  in  the  spring  and  in  bounti- 
ful supply.  Sheep  have  been  pastured  on  it  early  in 
the  season,  and  after  they  were  removed  a  good  crop 
of  seed  has  been  reaped.  Such  pasturing  is  favor- 
able to  seed  production  when  the  crop  is  likely  to  be 
too  rank.  It  may  also  be  pastured  with  much  advan- 
tage by  sheep  or  swine  when  it  is  grown  in  orchards. 
The  fertility  produced  by  the  crop  will  all  be  returned 
to  the  land  w^hen  it  is  thus  pastured. 

Obserz'ations. — i.  After  a  crop  of  seed  has  been 
harvested,  another  crop  of  clover  can  be  obtained  in 
some  instances  by  simply  harrowing  or  otherwise 
stirring  the  soil. 

2.  When  sheep  or  swine  are  used  in  pasturing 
an  orchard,  the  trees  may  be  protected  from  injury 
by  inclosing  the  trunks  in  wire  netting.  To  hinder 
the  sheep,  however,  from  eating  the  fruit  on  the 
lower  limbs  that  droop  is  practically  impossible. 

ALFALFA  OR  LUCERN. 

Alfalfa  or  Lucern  (Medicago  sativa)  is  a  won- 
derful food  plant.     No  other  plant  grown  in  the 


94  FORAGE    CROPS. 

United  States  or  Canada  will  furnish  so  much  valu- 
able food  for  so  long  a  term  of  years  without  re-seed- 
ing. There  are  some  alfalfa  fields  on  this  continent 
that  have  produced  several  good  crops  a  year  for 
more  than  forty  years,  and,  judging  by  the  indica- 
tions, they  will  continue  to  do  so  for  many  years 
longer.  But  those  fields  have  been  irrigated  from 
year  to  year.  However,  there  are  instances  on 
record  wherein  alfalfa  has  produced  good  crops  for 
a  long  term  of  years  when  not  irrigated.  It  is  not 
so  valuable  relatively  in  providing  pasture  as  forage, 
although  with  judicious  management  it  can  also  be 
turned  to  good  account  in  furnishing  pasture,  at 
least  under  some  conditions. 

Alfalfa  is  of  course  a  perennial.  It  grows  up 
rapidly  in  the  early  spring,  and  when  the  plants 
attain  a  hight  of  one  to  two  feet  or  more,  they  pro- 
duce bluish  purple  flowers.  As  soon  as  the  plants 
reach  the  blossoming  stage  the  stems  rapidly  become 
woody,  hence  it  is  necessary  to  use  much  promptness 
in  cutting  the  crop  for  hay,  or  in  pasturing  it  off  in 
the  early  part  of  the  season.  When  cut  or  eaten 
down,  other  stems  come  out  from  the  basil  root  and 
more  numerously,  until  the  plants  reach  full  size, 
which  they  do  in  three  or  four  years.  These  stems 
grow  very  rapidly,  hence  the  number  of  crops  that 
may  be  reaped  in  one  season  is  sometimes  as  high  as 
six  to  eight.  It  sends  a  taproot  down  to  a  con- 
siderable depth  into  the  soil.  Under  very  favorable 
conditions  this  taproot  is  ten  to  twelve  feet  long, 
but  usually  it  does  not  go  down  much  beyond  half 
that  distance.  This  accounts  for  the  great  ability 
of  the  plant  to  withstand  dry  weather  when  once  it 
has  firmly  intrenched  itself  in  the  soil. 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  95 

The  idea  that  it  will  not  be  worth  while  to  grow 
alfalfa  where  medium  red  clover  is  at  its  best  would 
seem  to  be  of  the  fogy  order,  although  it  has  been 
promulgated  by  some  good  authorities.  As  a  rota- 
tion plant  it  is  not  to  be  compared  with  clover,  but 
even  where  medium  clover  has  proved  a  great  suc- 
cess, there  may  be  good  reasons  for  growing  alfalfa 
to  provide  soiling  food  and  also  pasture. 

Distribution. — Alfalfa  can  be  grown  with  more 
or  less  success  in  every  state  of  the  Union,  and  in  a 
number  of  the  provinces  of  Canada.  But  it  has 
especial  adaptation  for  those  states  where  the  tem- 
peratures are  too  warm  and  the  conditions  are  too 
dry  to  grow  clover  at  its  best.  Speaking  in  a  general 
way.  the  highest  adaptation  for  alfalfa  culture  is 
found  in  those  states  that  lie  south  of  the  Missouri 
river,  including  the  lands  drained  by  that  river,  and 
west  from  the  Mississippi  where  it  is  joined  by  the 
Missouri.  Next  to  these  states  in  adaptation  may 
be  placed  those  areas  that  lie  south  of  the  Ohio  and 
between  the  Mississippi  and  the  Atlantic.  And  after 
these*  in  adaptation  come  various  localities  in  the 
other  states  where  the  measure  of  success  attained 
in  growing  the  crop  is  usually  more  dependent  on 
soil  conditions  than  on  those  which  relate  to  climate. 
There  is  probably  no  state  in  the  Union  in  which 
alfalfa  may  not  be  successfully  grown.  In  Louisi- 
ana it  has  been  made  to  provide  green  food  every 
day  in  the  year.  As  far  north  as  Toronto,  in  Onta- 
rio, and  Montreal,  in  Quebec,  good  crops  of  alfalfa 
have  been  grown.  But  in  the  northern  portions  of 
Xorth  Dakota,  Minnesota,  Wisconsin  and  Michigan, 
the  low  winter  temperature  will  probably  prove  a 
barrier  to  its  cultivation.  Elsewhere  in  the  United 


96  FORAGE    CROPS. 

States  it  will  endure  the  winters  as  far  north  as  the 
Canadian  boundary.  It  is  not  likely  to  succeed  in 
the  Canadian  provinces  that  lie  between  Lake  Supe- 
rior and  the  Rocky  mountains,  but  on  the  Pacific 
slopes  of  British  Columbia  there  should  be  no  diffi- 
culty in  growing  it  when  the  soils  are  suitable. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — As  alfalfa  is  usually 
sown  with  the  intention  of  allowing  it  to  remain 
undisturbed  by  the  plow  for  several  years,  it  will  be 
readily  apparent  that  it  is  not  a  good  rotation  crop. 
In  fact,  it  can  only  be  used  in  very  long  rotations 
when  thus  grown.  But  as  it  is  sometimes  sown  to 
provide  hay  arid  pasture  along  with  medium,  mam- 
moth, or  alsike  clover,  it  may  be  used  in  rotations  of 
limited  duration,  in  conjunction  with  one  or  more 
of  these  plants.  When  thus  grown  the  rotation  may 
be  the  same  as  that  adopted  in  growing  these  clo- 
vers; that  is  to  say,  it  may,  with  much  propriety, 
follow  a  cultivated  crop  in  order  to  obtain  a  clean 
seed  bed  on  which  to  sow  it.  And  it  ought  to  be 
followed  by  some  crop  that  wants  much  nitrogen  to 
perfect  it,  as  corn  or  one  of  the  cereals.  As  alfalfa 
is  a  somewhat  delicate  plant  the  first  year,  it  is 
important  that  it  shall  be  sown  on  clean  ground 
where  the  weeds  will  not  be  likely  to  smother  it. 

Soil. — The  soil  best  suited  to  the  growth  of 
alfalfa  will  be  measurably  dependent  on  the  moisture 
that  can  be  furnished  to  it  in  the  form  of  rain, 
through  surface  irrigation  or  from  a  subterranean 
source.  Loose,  sandy  loam  soils  rich  in  certain 
elements  of  plant  food,  particularly  lime,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash,  are  usually  regarded  as  the  most 
suitable  for  alfalfa.  These  soils  should  be  deep  in 
character  and  should  lie  on  sandy  or  gravelly  sub- 


PLANTS    OF    THE     CLOVER    FAMILY.  97 

soils,  that  is  to  say,  subsoils  which  consist  of  fine 
gravel  intermixed  with  sand.  Such  soils  are  emi- 

o 

nently  adapted  for  growing  alfalfa  when  water  is 
plentifully  supplied  from  the  clouds,  from  irrigating 
ditches,  or  from  the  water  table  in  the  subsoil.  This 
water  table  must  not  be  too  near  the  surface,  or  the 
root  growth  will  be  hindered  to  the  great  injury  of 
the  plants ;  nor  must  it  be  too  far  from  the  surface, 
or  it  will  fail  to  reach  the  plants  in  sufficient  quan- 
tity. When  water  cannot  be  supplied  from  ditches 
or  from  a  subterranean  source,  and  when  the  sum- 
mer climate  is  dry  in  character,  it  will  be  found  that 
alfalfa  will  grow  best  in  soils  that  are  underlaid  with 
mild,  porous  clay  subsoils,  which  the  roots  can  easily 
penetrate.  If  grown  under  those  conditions,  if  the 
subsoil  were  sand  or  gravel,  the  plants  would  not 
obtain  sufficient  moisture.  The  best  soils  probably 
in  the  United  States  for  growing  alfalfa  when  amply 
supplied  with  water  are  the  volcanic  ash  soils,  allu- 
vial in  character,  that  are  found  in  the  valleys  west 
and  southwest  of  the  Missouri  river.  The  sandy 
soils  of  the  states  south  and  southeast  of  the  Ohio 
are  not  usually  rich  enough  to  produce  maximum 
crops  without  being  fertilized.  The  soils  of  the 
upper  Mississippi  basin,  with  exceptions  somewhat 
numerous,  do  not  seem  to  have  the  proper  food  ele- 
ments. In  other  localities,  particularly  in  states 
north  and  east  of  the  Ohio,  are  stretches  of  hardpan 
subsoil,  which  forbid  the  growth  of  alfalfa.  And 
in  all  soils  where  the  water  table  comes  near  the  sur- 
face at  any  time  in  the  year,  alfalfa  cannot  be  suc- 
cessfully grown. 

Preparing  the  soil. — When  alfalfa  is  to  be  laid 
down  for  a  term  of  years,  it  is  important  that  the 
•7 


98  FORAGE    CROPS. 

land  on  which  it  is  sown  shall  first  be  well  cleaned, 
either  by  summer  fallowing  it,  or,  what  would  be 
better,  by  growing  some  crop  on  it  that  is  given 
clean  cultivation.  It  is  also  important  that  the 
ground  shall  be  plowed  deeply  in  preparing  it  for 
the  alfalfa,  or,  what  would  be  better  perhaps,  in' pre- 
paring it  for  the  cultivated  crop  that  is  to  precede 
the  alfalfa.  Subsoiling  the  land  will  usually  be 
found  a  good  investment.  But  this  should  never  be 
done  by  running  the  ordinary  plow  twice  in  the  same 
furrow,  except  in  soils  that  are  as  rich  in  available 
plant  food  in  the  under  furrow  slice  as  in  the  upper 
one.  Otherwise  the  plants  from  the  newly  sown 
alfalfa  may  not  be  able  to  get  food  enough  to  pro- 
duce a  vigorous  growth  when  they  are  young.  But 
when  alfalfa  is  sown  along  with  other  plants  to 
provide  pasture,  it  is  not  so  necessary  to  have 
the  land  in  such  a  perfect  condition  of  prepara- 
tion, owing  to  the  limited  period  during  which 
it  will  be  grown. 

Sowing. — The  time  for  sowing  alfalfa  varies 
much  with  the  locality.  It  should  not  be  sown  in 
the  winter  or  in  the  summer.  In  the  northern  half 
of  the  republic  it  is  usually  sown  in  the  early  spring, 
as  soon  as  the  ground  has  become  warm,  and  the 
danger  from  severe  frosts  is  past.  In  the  southern 
half  thereof  it  is  sown  in  the  autumn  and  also 
in  the  spring.  When  sown  in  the  autumn,  suffi- 
cient time  should  be  given  to  the  young  plants 
to  make  enough  growth  to  enable  them  to  pass 
the  winter  safely,  with  its  frequent  periods  of  trying- 
temperatures. 

The  method  of  sowing  is  by  no  means  uniform. 
When  alfalfa  is  sown  as  the  sole  crop,  there  is  no 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  99 

better  way  of  putting  it  into  the  soil  than  by  sowing 
it  with  a  seed  drill  of  proper  construction.  But 
oftentimes  it  is  broadcasted.  When  thus  broad- 
casted, it  may  be  advantageousry  covered  with  a  light 
harrow,  with  the  teeth  straight  or  aslant,  with  the 
roller  alone,  or  with  the  roller  followed  by  the 
harrow,  according  to  the  nature  of  the  soil.  When 
sown  with  a  nurse  crop,  as,  for  instance,  a  thin  seed- 
ing of  oats  to  be  cut  for  hay  at  the  earing  stage,  the 
alfalfa  seed  is  likely  to  be  sufficiently  covered  if  it 
has  been  sown  by  any  process  in  front  of  the  drill 
tubes.  And  the  same  is  true  of  other  seeds,  as  clo- 
ver and  timothy,  sown  along  with  the  alfalfa.  But 
sometimes  it  is  further  necessary  to  roll  the  land, 
and,  it  may  be,  to  harrow  it  with  a  light  harrow,  the 
teeth  being  set  at  a  backward  slant.  When  sown 
on  some  of  the  weedy  lands  of  the  south,  it  has 
been  found  profitable  to  deposit  the  seed  in  rows 
and  to  keep  the  plants  clean  the  first  year  by 
cultivation. 

To  provide  pasture,  alfalfa  is  sometimes  sown 
in  short  rotations  along  with  one  or  more  varieties 
of  clover  and  timothy.  The  author  has  thus  grown 
it  with  no  little  success  in  Ontario.  And  there  may 
be  other  combinations  in  which  it  can  be  successfully 
grown  under  some  conditions. 

When  alfalfa  is  grown  to  furnish  hay,  thick 
seeding  is  recommended,  not  less  than  twenty  pounds 
per  acre,  and  in  some  instances  more  than  that 
amount,  that  the  stand  of  the  hay  may  be  of  fine 
growth.  This  will  reduce  the  waste  in  feeding  the 
hay.  To  provide  seed  or  winter  pasture,  it  should 
be  sown  less  thickly,  about  fifteen  pounds  per  acre 
is  considered  sufficient.  When  sown  along  with 


100  FORAGE    CROPS. 

clovers  and  timothy,  the  following  combination  is 
a  good  one,  viz. : — 

Per  acre 

Alfalfa 4  Ibs 

Medium  clover ". 2  Ibs 

Mammoth  "       2  Ibs 

Alsike i  lb 

Timothy 3  Ibs 

Total 12  Ibs 

Cultivation. — When  alfalfa  is  sown  in  rows  and 
cultivated  the  first  season,  as  is  sometimes  practiced 
in  the  south  and  elsewhere,  the  cultivation  may  be 
given  with  the  hand  hoe  or  horse  cultivator,  or  with 
both,  according  to  the  distance  between  the  rows 
and  to  the  necessity  for  hand  labor.  When  the 
plants  have  reached  the  hight  of  three  or  four  inches, 
and  the  ground  has  become  encrusted  on  the  sur- 
face, a  light  harrow  judiciously  passed  over  the  crop 
will  help  it  materially.  When  sown  without  a  nurse 
crop  and  the  land  becomes  weedy,  as  it  does  in  nearly 
all  instances,  the  mower  should  be  run  over  the 
alfalfa  once,  or  more  frequently,  during  the  first  sea- 
son, as  occasion  may  require.  And  the  vegetation 
thus  cut  off  should  be  allowed  to  fall  as  a  mulch  for 
the  crop,  unless  there  should  be  special  reasons  for 
removing  it. 

If  grown  dependent  upon  irrigation,  the  water 
should  be  applied  the  first  year  as  needed,  but  not 
less  than  two  or  three  times.  After  the  first  year 
the  water  should  be  applied  in  the  spring  and  after 
each  cutting,  but  not  when  the  alfalfa  is  going  into 
the  winter.  Irrigating  waters  should  never  be 
allowed  to  stand  on  alfalfa  for  a  longer  period  than 
forty-eight  hours  at  a  time. 

Pasturing. — Alfalfa  may  be  made  to  furnish 
excellent  pasture  for  horses,  cattle,  sheep  and  swine, 


PLANTS    OF    THE    CLOVER    FAMILY.  IOI 

but  the  pasturing  must  not  be  done  in  an  indiscrimi- 
nate manner.  It  ought  not  to  be  pastured  at  any 
and  every  stage  of  growth,  nor  at  .all  seasons  of  the 
year.  It  should  seldom,  if  ever,  be  pastured  off  the 
season  that  it  is  sown.  It  is  somewhat  of  a  delicate 
plant  when  young,  hence  it  is  easily  injured  the  first 
season.  Neither  should  it  be  pastured  in  the  late 
autumn  nor  during  the  winter  in  cold  latitudes. 
Such  pasturing  would  likely  prove  fatal  to  the 
alfalfa,  hence  probably  the  prevalent  opinion  that  it 
cannot  be  pastured  at  all  in  the  winter  season.  Pas- 
turing sheep  on  alfalfa  is  attended  with  the  greatest 
hazard  to  the  plant,  because  of  their  habit  of  crop- 
ping plants  closely.  Most  satisfactory  results  are  ob- 
tained from  pasturing  horses  and  swine  upon  alfalfa. 

Horses  and  swine  can  be  pastured  on  it  at  any 
season  without  serious  hazard  to  the  animals.  The 
plan  of  pasturing  off  alfalfa  with  horses,  introduced 
and  practiced  by  Mr.  C.  H.  Larrabee  of  Home  Park, 
Montana,  at  his  Brooknook  ranch  in  that  state, 
would  seem  to  be  a  good  one.  His  alfalfa  is  irri- 
gated. His  first  crop  is  cut  for  hay.  The  second 
growth  is  allowed  to  remain.  Weanling  colts  which 
are  also  fed  grain  are  then  turned  in  upon  it  in  the 
autumn.  Later,  older  colts,  and  still  later,  horses, 
are  grazed  upon  it,  and  as  spring  approaches,  cattle 
are  turned  in  to  clean  up  the  residue  of  the  pasture. 
The  animals  are  also  given  alfalfa  hay  when  they 
require  it.  And  ranchmen  further  to  the  southwest 
also  adopt  a  somewhat  similar  mode  of  wintering 
their  cattle.  The  re-seeding  of  the  ground  thus 
every  year  would  seem  to  maintain  a  stand,  despite 
the  depasturing. 

Alfalfa  furnishes  a  grand  pasture  for  swine. 


TO2  FORAGE    CROPS. 

They  may  feed  upon  it  through  all  the  growing  sea- 
son if  supplied  with  water.  They  will  grow  nicely 
on  it  without  otr^er  food,  but  a  little  grain,  as  corn, 
for  instance,  can  frequently  be  fed  to  advantage. 
Swine  pastures  should  be  mowed  occasionally  to 
secure  a  plentiful  supply  of  tender  and  succu- 
lent alfalfa. 

If  cattle  and  sheep  are  pastured  on  alfalfa  when 
it  is  in  a  succulent  condition,  and  more  especially 
when  wet  with  dew  or  rain,  the  alfalfa  is  liable  to 
produce  hoven  or  bloat,  unless  the  animals  have 
partaken  of  other  food  before  being  allowed  to  graze 
on  the  alfalfa.  Sometimes  they  may  be  pastured  for 
a  whole  season  without  harm ;  at  other  times  the  loss 
is  serious.  But  when  the  alfalfa  is  growing  amid 
other  grasses,  the  danger  from  this  source  is  much 
lessened. 

Observations. — i.  Alfalfa  may  be  sown  with 
much  propriety  in  permanent  pastures  when  the  con- 
ditions will  admit  of  it.  Its  continuity  in  them  will 
depend  upon  such  conditions  as  the  nature  of  the 
soil,  the  encroaching  character  of  the  other  grasses, 
and  the  closeness  of  the  pasturing. 

2.  One  acre  of  alfalfa  will  furnish  pasture  to 
from  ten  to  twenty  hogs  through  the  entire  season 
of  growth,  dependent,  of  course,  upon  the  age  of  the 
hogs  and  the  conditions  relating  to  growth  in 
the  pasture. 


CHAPTER  VI. 

LEGUMINOUS  PLANTS  OTHER   THAN   CLOVER. 

Chief  among  the  leguminous  plants  other  than 
clover  that  have  heretofore  been  grown  on  this  con- 
tinent to  provide  forage  are  the  fielc^pea,  the  com- 
mon vetch,  the  cowpea  and  the  soybean.  The  field 
pea  and  the  common  vetch  have  hitherto  been  grown 
chiefly  in  Canada,  and  to  a  less  extent  in  the  United 
States  that  borders  on  Canada.  But  during  recent 
years  the  vetch  crop  of  the  states  of  Oregon  and 
Washington  is  assuming  proportions  of  some  mag- 
nitude. The  sand  vetch  has  been  grown  in  a  tenta- 
tive way  in  various  parts  of  the  United  States,  and 
the  cowpea  and  the  soy  bean  have  been  grown  in 
the  southern  states  and  to  a  less  extent  in  those  that 
are  central.  The  peas  and  vetches  are  all  of  a  more 
or  less  trailing  habit  of  growth.  The  soy  bean  has 
more  of  the  bush  form.  All  of  these  have  been 
found  excellent  food  plants  in  the  localities  which 
have  special  adaptation  for  growing  them. 

THE  FIELD  PEA. 

The  field  pea  (Pisum  sativum)  is  of  many  vari- 
eties. These  are  variously  distinguished,  as  by  the 
length  and  strength  of  the  straw,  the  more  or  less 
trailing  habit  of  the  growth,  the  size  and  number  of 
the  pods,  the  size  of  the  peas  and  the  relative  number 

103 


104 


FORAGE    CROPS. 


Fig.  14.    Eight  Plants  of  Green  Field  Pea. 

Minnesota    University    Experiment    Farm. 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  105 

in  each  pod,  the  color  of  the  blossoms  and  the  color 
and  shape  of  the  peas. 

In  the  United  States,  peas  are  usually  spoken 
of  as  "Canada  field  peas,"  whatever  the  variety  may 
be.  The  term  is  a  misnomer,  for  many  varieties  of 
field  peas  are  grown  there  which  did  not  originate  in 
Canada  (Fig.  14).  Under  the  supervision  of  the 
author,  more  than  eighty  varieties  of  field  peas  were 
grown  at  the  Ontario  experiment  station  at  Guelph 
in  1893,  only  a  very  few  °f  which  were  first  grown 
in  Canada.  The  term  originated  probably  in  the 
fact  that  the  earlier  importations  of  seed  peas  into 
this  country  came  chiefly  from  Canada. 

The  field  pea,  as  is  generally  known,  is  of  an 
upright  habit  of  growth  until  it  reaches  a  certain 
hight  from  the  ground,  more  or  less  according  to 
the  presence  or  absence  of  wind  and  rain.  Then  it 
falls  over  unless  sustained  by  other  grain  sown  along 
with  it,  and  it  completes  its  growth  in  a  recumbent 
position.  It  is  this  trailing  habit  of  growth  that 
renders  it  unsuitable  for  being  grown  alone  to  pro- 
vide pasture  for  any  kind  of  live  stock  except  swine. 
And  it  is  because  of  this  habit  of  growth  that  the  pea 
is  usually  sown  along  with  one  or  the  other  of  the 
cereals  to  provide  pasture  for  sheep. 

In  Ontario  a  very  large  area  is  sown  with  peas 
every  year.  These  are  grown  chiefly  for  the  grain 
food  which  they  furnish,  but  also  for  the  winter  fod- 
der obtained  from  the  straw  when  cured.  And  in 
Ontario  and  some  parts  of  the  United  States  they 
are  being  some\vhat  freely  grown  in  combination 
with  other  grain  to  provide  soiling  food  for  sum- 
mer use  and  fodder  in  the  unthreshed  form  for  win- 
ter feeding.  Peas  are  also  sown  along  with  oats  or 


IO6  FORAGE    CROPS. 

other  grain  to  furnish  pasture  for  sheep  and  swine. 
The  peas  improve  the  quality  of  the  pasture  because 
of  the  rich  flesh-forming  and  milk-producing  food 
which  they  furnish.  But  when  thus  grown  it  should 
be  on  lands  with  special  adaptation  for  growing  the 
peas,  otherwise  the  cereal  grown  along  with  the  peas 
is  likely  to  crowd  them.  Such  pastures  are  not. so 
well  adapted  for  being  grazed  down  by  horses  and 
cattle,  because  of  the  greater  injury  which  they  cause 
the  peas  through  treading.  But  it  is  when  sown 
alone  that  peas  are  more  commonly  grown  as  a  pas- 
ture for  swine.  This  chapter  will  consider  only  the 
growing  of  peas  for  pasture,  although  it  may  be 
mentioned  here  that  the  process  of  growing  peas  for 
swine  forage  is  essentially  the  same  as  when  grow- 
ing them  for  the  grain. 

Distribution. — Peas  usually  succeed  best  in  a 
cool  and  also  in  a  moist  climate  in  which  the  summer 
temperatures  are  not  extreme  in  their  variations  and 
where  the  nights  are  cool.  But  a  moderately  cool 
and  even  temperature  is  more  important  relatively 
than  moisture  in  the  air,  otherwise  certain  of  the 
Montana  and  other  Rocky  mountain  valleys  would 
not  be  able  to  grow  peas  with  and  without  irrigation 
according  to  the  locality,  and  in  such  magnificent 
form.  Hot  and  dry  climates  are  ill  adapted  to  the 
growing  of  peas,  and  more  especially  where  winds 
hot  and  dry  are  apt  to  prevail  at  that  season  of  the 
year  when  the  peas  are  coming  into  bloom.  At  such 
a  time  intense  heat  of  the  sun  or  the  warm  breath  of 
continued  hot  winds  would  hinder  the  blossoms  from 
producing  pods  and  grain  in  the  perfection  of  devel- 
opment, and  if  sufficiently  prolonged  the  vines  would 
shrivel  and  wither  without  fruiting  at  all. 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  1 07 

Peas  may  be  grown  as  a  grain  crop  with  marked 
success  in  nearly  all  the  tillable  portions  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada  above  the  45th  parallel  of 
north  latitude,  that  is  to  say,  in  all  places  north  of 
the  latitude  of  Bangor,  in  Maine,  St.  Paul,  in  Minne- 
sota, and  Salem,  in  Oregon.  They  can  also  be 
grown  quite  as  successfully  in  some  localities  two  or 
three  degrees  south  of  this  parallel,  from  the  Atlantic 
to  the  Mississippi  and  also  in  Oregon  on  the  Pacific 
slope.  And  in  some  localities  much  further  south  it 
is  very  probable  that  peas  can  be  grown  in  good  form 
where  the  altitude  is  sufficient. 

The  highest  adaptation  for  peas  grown  without 
irrigation  is  probably  found  in  the  states  of  Wash- 
ington and  Oregon  and  in  British  Columbia,  on  the 
slopes  nearest  to  the  sea  (Fig.  15).  The  highest 
adaptation  when  grown  under  irrigation  is  probably 
found  in  the  inland  valleys  of  Montana,  Idaho, 
\Yashington,  Wyoming  and  Colorado.  The  most 
general  adaptation  in  any  one  state  or  province  is 
probably  found  in  Ontario,  with  Michigan  and  Wis- 
consin close  seconds.  And  the  highest  adaptation 
on  the  prairies  is  probably  found  in  North  Dakota, 
northern  Minnesota  and  Manitoba. 

But  peas  can  be  grown  successfully  for  forage 
and  soiling  food  much  further  south  than  the  line 
drawn  as  the  southern  limit  of  highest  production  of 
grain.  This  is  more  especially  true  when  the  peas 
are  grown  in  combination  with  other  grain.  When 
grown  thus  for  pasture,  the  grain,  of  course,  is  not 
considered,  and  when  grown  for  soiling  food  it  is 
not  so  important  relatively  as  when  the  peas  are 
grown  for  the  fodder. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — If  a  crop  of  peas  is 


io8 


FORAGE    CROPS. 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  1 09 

grown  until  mature  on  a  piece  of  land  and  then  bar 
vested,  the  land  will  contain  more  nitrogen  than 
before  the  peas  were  sown  on  it.  It  is  evident,  there- 
fore, that  the  pea  should  be  grown  with  an  eye  to 
preparing  the  land  for  a  crop  that  requires  much 
nitrogen,  as,  for  instance,  a  crop  of  wheat  or  other 
cereal,  or  a  crop  of  corn.  It  is  also  evident  that  it  can 
be  grown  successfully  on  soils  lower  in  plant  food 
than  would  suffice  to  produce  a  maximum  crop  of  any 
one  of  the  cereals,  at  least  so  far  as  concerns  the  pres- 
ence of  nitrogen  in  the  soil.  If  the  ground  is  prop- 
erly prepared  it  may  be  successfully  grown  on  land 
that  is  foul  with  certain  forms  of  weed  life,  as,  for 
instance,  annuals.  But  peas  should  not  be  grown 
on  land  infested  with  certain  perennials,  such  as  the 
Canada  thistle. 

Theoretically,  peas  should  not  be  sowrn  on  over- 
turned sod.  It  is  commonly  considered  better  prac- 
tice to  give  these  lands  up  to  other  grain  crops,  as 
oats,  because  of  the  abundance  of  the  vegetable  mat- 
ter which  they  contain.  Notwithstanding,  peas 
grow  handsomely  on  such  land,  the  other  conditions 
being  right,  owing  probably  to  the  moisture  which 
is  held  for  the  peas  by  the  grass  roots  as  they  decay, 
and  they  put  sod  lands  in  excellent  condition  for 
being  followed  with  a  cereal  crop.  Peas  may  be 
succeeded  with  much  advantage  if  grown  alone  by 
winter  wheat  or  rye,  where  the  former  can  with- 
stand the  rigors  of  the  winter.  \Yhen  followed  by 
one  or  the  other  of  these  crops,  the  land  requires 
only  to  be  disked  in  preparing  it,  unless  the  soil 
should  be  foul  with  weed  life. 

Soil. — The  best  soil  for  peas  is  a  mild,  porous 
and  moist  clay  loam,  free  from  superfluous  water 


I  10  FORAGE    CROPS. 

in  the  soil  or  subsoil  during  all  stages  of  the  growth 
of  the  plants.  Sandy  loams  are  good  if  moist,  but 
not  so  good  as  clay  loams.  Peas  will  grow  fairly 
well  on  stiff,  unyielding  clays,  but  not  so  quickly  as 
on  clay  loams.  Dry,  sandy  and  gravelly  lands  defi- 
cient in  moisture  are  poor  pea  lands.  The  black 
humus  soils  of  the  prairie  are  prone  to  grow  too 
much  straw  for  good  yields  of  the  grain.  But  this 
is  not  objectionable  when  the  peas  are  grown  for 
sheep  forage  along  with  other  grain,  or  to  provide 
soiling  food.  And  muck  lands  are  ill  adapted  to 
growing  peas  for  pasture  or  for  the  grain,  since  the 
vines  run  chiefly  to  straw.  While  peas  are  rather 
easily  injured  by  drouth,  if  the  soil  on  which  they 
are  growing  should  be  saturated  with  water  for  any 
considerable  time  during  their  development,  it  would 
be  fatal  to  the  growing  of  the  peas. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — In  preparing  the  soil  for 
peas,  the  aim  should  be,  first,  to  plow  the  land  in  the 
autumn  unless  where  there  are  good  reasons  for  not 
doing  so;  second,  to  plow  it  deeply;  and,  third,  to 
make  a  fine  seed  bed.  In  localities  where  the  win- 
ters are  long,  open  and  rainy,  the  land  should  not  be 
plowed  in  the  fall.  Nor  is  it  necessary  when  the 
peas  are  broadcasted  and  then  plowed  under.  When 
sod  is  plowed  for  peas,  and  more  especially  if  it  is 
plowed  for  them  in  the  spring,  the  furrow  slices 
should  be  narrow  and  laid  at  an  angle  of  about 
forty-five  degrees.  When  peas  are  broadcasted  on 
land  thus  prepared,  they  fall  down  in  the  depres- 
sions between  the  cone  or  crest  of  the  respective 
furrow  slices.  And  when  in  covering  the  seed  the 
harrow  is  run  straight  along  these  furrow  slices  and 
at  one  or  two  different  angles  over  them,  it  drags 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  Ill 

down  the  earth  into  the  depressions  and  in  this  way 
covers  the  seed.  If  the  sod  were  turned  over  in 
broad  furrow  slices  and  left  in  a  flat  state,  it  would 
be  necessary  to  use  the  disk  cultivator  to  make  a 
proper  seed  bed. 

It  is  not  common  to  manure  the  land  for  peas, 
but  manure  will  be  very  helpful  on  poor  land.  Farm- 
yard manures  are  nearly  always  in  order.  When 
commercial  fertilizers  are  to  be  used,  phosphoric 
acid  and  potash  are  likely  to  be  more  helpful  than 
nitrogen. 

Sowing  the  Seed. — When  peas  and  oats  are 
sown  for  sheep  pasture,  about  three  bushels  of  the 
combined  mixture  should  be  sown,  but  for  some 
soils  a  less  quantity  will  suffice.  About  equal  parts 
by  measure  of  each  kind  of  seed  should  be  used,  but 
there  may  be  reasons  for  ^varying  these  proportions ; 
as,  for  instance,  when  the  oats  grow  more  vigorously 
than  the  peas  it  would  be  necessary  to  increase  the 
proportion  of  the  pea  seed  sown.  The  small  varie- 
ties of  field  peas  should  be  preferred,  as  they  produce 
more  forage.  The  seed  may  be  mixed  and  sown 
with  the  drill,  taking  care  to  bury  it  deeply,  as  deep 
as  three  to  four  inches.  Sometimes  the  peas  are 
first  sown  broadcast  and  the  land  is  then  plowed,  as 
deeply  on  light  prairie  soils  as  four  to  six  inches, 
and  then  the  oats  are  drilled  in  less  deeply.  But  on 
the  whole,  the  first  method  is  to  be  preferred  when 
it  is  the  proper  thing  to  plow  the  land  in  the  fall  for 
the  reasons,  first,  that  the  moisture  is  better  con- 
served ;  second,  that  the  labor  is  less,  and,  third,  that 
the  harrowing  subsequently  given  by  way  of  cultiva- 
tion may  be  more  thorough  than  when  the  oats  are 
planted  less  deeply.  And  here  it  may  be  mentioned 


112  FORAGE    CROPS. 

that  on  firm  soils  where  there  is  usually  ample  rain- 
fall it  is  not  necessary  to  sow  peas  so  deeply. 

When  peas  are  sown  to  furnish  food  for  swine, 
the  method  is  no  way  different  from  that  of  growing 
them  for  the  grain.  Not  less  than  two  bushels  of 
the  seed  of  the  small  varieties  should  be  sown  per 
acre,  and  not  more  than  three  and  one-half  bushels 
of  the  large  varieties.  All  things  considered,  the 
small  varieties  are  to  be  preferred.  The  aim  should 
be  to  sow  the  peas  with  the  drill,  and  as  in  sowing 
them  for  sheep  pasture,  to  bury  them  deeply.  Of 
course  they  can  be  broadcasted  and  plowed  under, 
but  the  same  objections  will  apply  as  when  peas  are 
sown  thus  to  provide  sheep  pasture.  Peas  should 
never  be  broadcasted  and  covered  simply  with  the 
harrow,  except  on  sod  land,  the  narrow  furrow  slices 
of  which  are  laid  up  as  described  in  the  preceding 
section,  or,  in  other  words,  as  sod  furrows  are  usu- 
ally turned  over  by  Ontario  plowmen.  But  it  may 
be  admissible  sometimes  to  disk  in  peas  on  properly 
prepared  land.  When  covered  with  the  harrow  some 
of  the  seed  remains  unburied,  and  if  dry  weather 
should  follow,  the  peas  will  suffer  much  more  than  if 
they  had  been  buried  deeply.  This  one  factor  alone 
may  make  the  difference  between  success  and  failure. 

Peas  sown  for  the  grain  they  will  produce,  for 
sheep  pasture  and  for  swine  forage,  had  better  be 
sown  as  early  as  the  land  can  be  worked  nicely  in  the 
spring.  But  for  the  two  purposes  last  named,  there 
may  be  good  reasons  for  sowing  them  later,  and  as 
a  rule  the  roller  should  follow  the  seed  drill. 

Cultivating. — The  only  cultivation  required  by 
peas  sown  for  sheep  pasture  or  for  swine  forage  is 
a  thorough  harrowing.  This  should  be  given  to 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  113 

them  before  the  seed  appears  above  ground.  It  is 
not  necessary  that  the  harrow  teeth  shall  go  deeply 
into  the  ground.  It  is  better  that  they  should  not 
do  so,  but  the  surface  of  the  ground  should  be  all 
stirred,  even  though  the  harrow  should  have  to  be 
driven  anglewise  across  the  field  after  the  first  har- 
rowing to  accomplish  the  end  sought.  When  the 
surface  of  the  soil  is  thus  stirred,  the  weeds  that 
have  sprouted  are  likely  to  die,  and  before  they  are 
up  again  the  peas  are  likely  to  be  away  ahead  of 
them.  The  stirring  of  the  soil  also  enables  it  the 
better  to  hold  the  moisture.  But  there  may  be  rea- 
sons where  such  harrowing  cannot  be  done  because 
of  an  excess  of  moisture.  So  much  the  worse  will 
it  be,  then,  for  the  pea  crop. 

Pasturing. — When  peas  and  oats  are  pastured 
by  sheep,  they  may  be  turned  in  to  graze  them  down 
when  they  are  from  six  to  ten  inches  high.  The 
sheep  should  not  be  allowed  to  pasture  on  them, 
for  various  reasons,  when  they  are  wet.  If,  when 
the  pasture  is  grazed  down,  the  sheep  are  shut  away 
frcm  it,  the  grain  will  soon  spring  up  again,  and  vig- 
orously in  moist  weather,  and  will  therefore  furnish 
pasture  a  second  time,  and  even  a  third  time  under 
some  conditions.  Peas  and  oats  furnish  an  excel- 
lent and  a  safe  pasture  for  sheep  and  lambs.  It  is 
excellent  because  of  its  marked  palatability,  because 
of  the  amount  which  it  furnishes,  and  because  of  its 
timeliness.  It  comes  in  at  a  season  when  much  milk 
is  wanted  for  the  lambs,  and  much  milk  is  sure  to 
be  the  outcome  if  the  dams  are  grazed  upon  this  pas- 
ture when  it  is  succulent.  And  it  is  safe  because 
no  ill  effects  may  be  expected  from  pasturing  the 
sheep  upon  it. 

*    8 


114  FORAGE    CROPS. 

If  the  pasture  should  grow  so  fast  that  the 
sheep  could  not  properly  utilize  it,  the  residue  could 
be  made  into  hay.  But  when  so  used,  the  sheep 
should  be  removed  from  the  pasture  some  time  pre- 
vious to  cutting  the  crop  for  fodder.  And  when 
the  crop  is  pastured  for  a  time  and  the  second  growth 
is  made  into  hay,  it  will  furnish  the  finest  of  hay; 
since  the  effect  of  the  first  pasturing  is  to  cause  the 
grain  to  stool  out  more  than  it  otherwise  would.  As 
a  result  the  hay  will  be  finer.  But  there  may  be 
instances  in  which  the  yield  of  the  second  growth 
would  be  very  light,  as  on  heavy  and  poor  soils  in 
a  dry  season.  And  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that 
if  the  oats  are  allowed  to  joint,  or  the  peas  to  form 
miniature  buds  for  blossoming  before  they  are 
grazed  down,  their  power  to  grow  subsequently  will 
be  greatly  lessened. 

Peas  are  usually  pastured  by  swine  before  they 
are  matured,  or  after  they  are  matured.  When  pas- 
tured before  the  peas  are  ripe,  it  is  common  to  begin 
when  the  seeds  are  about  ready  to  cook,  and  to  con- 
tinue the  grazing  until  the  peas  are  ripe  or  until  they 
are  all  consumed.  If  the  swine  are  turned  in  to 
glean  at  the  stage  indicated,  they  eat  also  of 
the  green  portions  of  the  vine,  hence  the  waste 
of  straw  is  much  less  if  the  gleaning  can  be  all 
done  while  the  peas  are  not  yet  quite  ripe.  This 
can  be  accomplished  when  the  patch  or  field  is  not 
too  large. 

Swine  should  not  be  turned  into  a  field  of  peas 
green  or  ripe  and  left  there  for  a  long  period  at  the 
first.  There  is  danger  that  the  green  peas  will 
derange  the  digestion  and  that  the  ripe  peas  will 
swell  in  the  stomach  so  as  to  cause  death  through  its 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS. 

undue  distension.  But  after  a  time  the  swine  may 
forage  upon  them  at  will. 

When  foraging  upon  ripe  peas  the  swine  should 
not  have  a  larger  area  to  feed  upon  than  they  can 
consume  within  a  reasonable  time,  otherwise  the 
peas  may  waste  much,  especially  in  showery  weather. 
The  straw  will,  of  course,  be  a  total  loss  so  far  as 
its  food  value  may  be  concerned,  and  yet  there  are 
areas  where  the  lands  are  so  cheap  as  to  justify  the 
practice.  The  straw  can  be  burned  or  plowed  under. 
In  several  of  the  Rocky  mountain  valleys,  peas  may 
be  grown  as  pasture  for  swine  in  conjunction  with 
alfalfa.  The  swine  can  be  grown  chiefly  on  alfalfa 
and  then  finished  on  peas,  and  with  great  profit  to 
the  grower.  The  swine  gather  the  food  for 
themselves. 

Autumn  pasture  may  also  be  furnished  for 
swine  when  moisture  is  present,  by  deferring  the 
burning  of  the  straw  or  plowing  the  field  so  pas- 
tured. The  shelled  peas  that  have  been  trodden  into 
the  ground  by  the  feet  of  the  swine  will  quickly  grow 
up  and  furnish  excellent  green  pasture.  But  such 
pasture  should  not  be  sought  for  on  stiff  clays,  lest 
the  pasturing  should  lead  to  serious  impaction  of 
the  land. 

THE  COMMON  VETCH. 

The  common  vetch  (Vicia  saliva)  has  not  been 
extensively  grown  on  our  continent,  even  where  the 
adaptation  for  it  is  all  that  could  be  desired.  So 
little  attention  has  been  given  to  it  that  its  merits  as 
a  food  for  live  stock  are  understood  and  appreciated 
by  only  a  very  small  percentage  of  those  engaged 
in  agriculture. 


Tl6  FORAGE     CROPS. 

The  vetch  is  of  several  species.  But  two  of 
these,  however,  would  seem  to  have  been  grown  to 
any  very  great  extent  by  the  inhabitants  of  Anglo- 
Saxon  speaking  countries.  These  are  the  common 
vetch  and  the  sand  vetch,  and  they  are  the  only 
kinds  that  will  be  included  in  the  present  discussion. 
They  will  be  considered  separately,  because  of  the 
distinctive  differences  in  their  habits  of  growth  and 
also  in  general  adaptability. 

The  common  vetch  includes  the  sub-varieties 
known  as  winter  and  spring  vetches,  respectively. 
These  would  seem  to  have  sprung  from  one  and  the 
same  variety.  The  differences  which  now  charac- 
terize them  have  probably  been  brought  about  by  the 
different  season  at  which  they  have  been  sown.  The 
former  have  best  adaptation  for  climates  where  the 
winters  are  mild.  The  latter,  though  best  adapted 
to  climates  with  cool  summer  temperatures,  will  also 
grow  reasonably  well  in  warm  climates  if  sown  early 
enough  in  the  season. 

The  common  vetch  bears  no  little  resemblance 
to  the  common  pea  in  its  habits  of  growth.  But  the 
vetch  is  more  slender,  has  more  tendrils  and  leaves, 
the  leaves  are  more  serrated,  it  bears  its  pods  rather 
in  clusters  than  singly  or  in  pairs,  and  it  grows  more 
persistently  when  grazed  or  eaten  off  by  live  stock 
at  any  time  previous  to  maturity.  The  seed  is  also 
smaller  and  is  of  a  brown  or  black  color.  The  flow- 
ers are  purple. 

Vetches  or  tares,  as* they  are  sometimes  called, 
are  much  relished  by  live  stock  of  all  classes,  and 
there  are  but  few  kinds  of  food  that  are  equally  suit- 
able for  the  animals  of  the  farm.  They  are  excel- 
lent for  milk  production  and  their  fattening  proper- 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  I  \J 

ties  are  of  a  high  order.  They  have  special  adapta- 
tion for  being  grown  along  with  other  grain  to 
produce  soiling  food,  and  they  may  be  made  to  ren- 
der excellent  service  in  providing  pasture  for  live 
stock,  especially  sheep  and  swine.  But  when  grown 
for  hay,  for  soiling  food  or  for  pasture,  vetches 
should  be  sown  with  some  cereal  grain  to  sustain 
them,  because  of  their  trailing  habit  of  growth. 

Distribution. — The  distribution  of  the  common 
vetch  of  the  spring  sub-variety  is  much  the  same  as 
that  of  the  field  pea.  But  since  the  vetch  can  endure 
cold  even  better  than  the  pea,  the  limit  of  its  growth 
for  forage  lies  further  north,  and  because  of  its  abil- 
ity to  withstand  cold,  a  crop  of  spring  vetches  can 
be  sown  early  enough  in  the  Gulf  states  to  be  pas- 
tured off  or  cut  for  soiling  food  in  time  to  be  fol- 
lowed by  some  other  crop. 

The  common  spring  vetch,  notwithstanding  its 
ability  to  withstand  cold,  has  but  little  ability  to 
endure  extreme  heat,  hence  in  climates  with  hot 
summer  temperatures  it  would  seem  to  have  no 
mission  as  a  forage  plant  unless  in  the  springtime. 
It  would  be  ill  adapted,  therefore,  to  localities  with 
severe  winters  and  hot  summers,  such  as  are  found 
in  the  upper  Mississippi  basin  and  the  river  basins 
tributary  to  the  upper  Mississippi.  And  since  the 
winter  vetch  would  be  ready  for  grazing  much  ear- 
lier in  states  with  mild  winters,  it  would  seem  to  be 
wiser,  therefore,  in  these  latitudes  to  grow  the  winter 
rather  than  the  spring  sub-variety// 

Since  the  common  spring  vetch  needs  moist 
weather  as  well  as  cool  to  perfect  its  growth,  the 
highest  adaptation  for  this  plant  will  probably  be 
found  on  the  Pacific  slopes  of  Oregon,  Washington 


Il8  FORAGE    CROPS. 

and  British  Columbia.  Next  in  point  of  adaptation 
should  come  the  maritime  provinces  of  Canada  and 
the  New  England  states,  and  after  these  states  and 
provinces,  Quebec,  Ontario,  New  York  and  the 
northern  parts  of  Ohio,  Michigan,  Wisconsin  and 
North  Dakota,  also  Manitoba.  While  spring  vetches 
can  be  grown  further  south,  as  stated,  the  hot 
weather  of  summer  is  against  them. 

The  highest  adaptation  for  the  winter  vetch 
will  also  be  found  probably  in  the  Pacific  coast  states 
which  have  been  mentioned  as  possessed  of  highest 
adaptation  for  the  spring  vetch.  This  is  owing  to 
the  mildness  of  the  winters,  linked  with  the  mod- 
erate and  moist  summer  temperatures.  Next  to 
these  should  come  the  Gulf  states.  How  far  north 
the  winter  vetch  will  prosper  has  not  yet  been 
determined. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — The  vetch  being  a  legu- 
minous plant  should  be  grown  as  a  land  renovator. 
The  aim  should  be,  therefore,  to  grow  it  on  land  that 
had  borne  cereals.  Like  the  pea,  the  vetch  will  grow 
splendidly  on  overturned  sod  lands,  but  such  lands 
cannot  usually  be  spared  for  it.  The  winter  vetch 
may  be  made  to  follow  a  crop  that  has  been 
harvested,  because  of  the  late  season  at  which  it  is 
sown.  And  in  turn,  when  pastured  off  this  vetch 
may  be  followed  by  some  catch  crop,  as  rape,  for 
instance,  or  sorghum,  according  as  the  climate  is 
favorable  to  the  growth  of  one  or  the  other  of  these. 
The  vetch  crop  should,  as  a  rule,  be  followed  by 
some  cereal. 

Soil. — The  common  vetch,  like  the  field  pea, 
flourishes  best  in  a  moist,  clay  loam  soil  of  free  work- 
ing texture.  While  it  will  grow  most  satisfactorily 


LEGUMINOUS     PLANTS.  IIQ 

in  a  rich  soil,  it  will  grow  better  relatively  in  a  poor 
soil  than  field  peas.  In  nearly  all  respects  it  is  a 
more  rugged  plant  than  the  pea.  But  very  hot  suns 
and  warm  winds  will  blight  the  vetch  quite  as  read- 
ily as  the  pea. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — When  preparing  the  soil 
for  vetches,  the  pulverization  should  be  fine.  For 
spring  sown  vetches,  deep  fall  plowing  is  to  be  pre- 
ferred. For  autumn  sown  vetches  the  nature  of  the 
preparatory  cultivation  will  depend  somewhat  on  the 
crop  which  they  follow.  The  aim  should  be  to  have 
the  land  clean,  firm  and  moist.  If  the  vetch  follows 
a  hoed  crop,  as,  for  instance,  early  harvested  pota- 
toes, it  will  suffice  to  disk  the  ground  deeply  and  to 
smooth  it  with  the  harrow.  If  the  crop  follows  a 
cereal,  the  land  should  be  plowed  some  time  before 
sowing  the  seed,  especially  in  dry  weather,  and  then 
it  ought  to  be  rolled  and  harrowed  with  a  view  to 
enabling  it  to  gather  and  hold  moisture. 

Soiling  the  Seed. — The  spring  vetch  should  be 
sown  for  forage  as  early  as  the  ground  is  dry  enough 
to  be  worked  without  injury.  The  winter  vetch 
ought  to  be  sown  long  enough  before  winter  to 
enable  it  to  become  firmly  established  that  it  may  the 
better  withstand  the  rigors  of  the  winter.  But  it 
will  not  avail  to  sow  it  until  there  is  enough  of  mois- 
ture in  the  soil  to  sprout  the  seed.  The  seed  may 
be  broadcasted,  but  is  better  sown  with  the  grain 
drill,  either  when  sown  alone  or  along  with  other 
seed.  It  should  be  buried  about  as  deeply  as  cereals. 
When  sown  alone  for  pasture,  four  to  six  pecks  of 
seed  per  acre  ought  to  be  enough,  but  some  authori- 
ties recommend  an  amount  considerably  larger,  on 
the  ground  that  when  sown  thus  thickly  the  vetches 


120  FORAGE    CROPS. 

will  more  effectively  smother  weeds.  When  sown 
with  a  mixed  crop,  as  winter  rye  or  crimson  clover, 
the  proportion  of  the  vetch  seed  to  be  sown  must 
measurably  be  determined  by  the  ability  of  the  land 
to  grow  one  or  the  other  of  the  crops  named.  The 
more  aggressive  the  crop  on  that  particular  soil  the 
less  of  it  should  be  sown.  Ordinarily,  from  one  to 
two  pecks  of  the  vetch  seed  should  suffice  to  sow  in 
a  mixed  crop,  whether  of  the  spring  or  winter 
variety.  The  spring  vetch  is  frequently  sown  with 
some  cereal,  as  oats  or  barley,  to  provide  pasture. 

Cultivation. — The  harrow  is  probably  the  only 
implement  that  can  benefit  the  vetch  after  it  has 
begun  to  grow.  As  with  peas,  many  of  the  weeds 
that  would  otherwise  grow  in  the  crop  may  be 
destroyed  by  a  judicious  use  of  the  harrow  before 
the  vetches  get  above  the  surface  of  the  ground. 
But  when  such  seeds  as  rape  or  crimson  clover  are 
sown  with  the  vetches,  the  harrowing  if  done  at  all 
should  be  done  with  much  discrimination,  and  with 
crimson  clover  it  would  probably  be  better  not  to 
harrow  at  all.  But  the  sowing  of  plants  that  would 
easily  be  injured  by  the  harrowing  could  be  deferred 
until  the  vetches  were  ready  to  be  harrowed. 

Pasturing.  —  Vetches  are  more  commonly 
grazed  off  by  sheep  than  by  other  classes  of  live 
stock.  They  are  ready  to  be  pastured  when  several 
inches  high.  If  grown  along  with  cereals,  as  oats, 
the  vetches,  like  the  oats,  will  come  again  and 
with  equal  vigor  where  the  conditions  are  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  the  vetches.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  pasture  off  autumn  vetches  too  early  nor  too 
closely,  lest  the  winter  weather  should  harm  them. 
The  extent  of  such  pasturing  during-  the  late  autumn 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  121 

or  early  winter  months  that  would  be  proper  in  each 
locality  cannot  be  stated  here. 

Observations. — i.  But  few  plants  grown  have 
been  found  more  suitable  than  the  common  vetch  in 
providing  soiling  food.  It  would  seem  to  be  equally 
adapted  to  horses,  cows,  sheep  and  swine. 

2.  The  hay  of  the  common  vetch  is  at  least  as 
nutritious  as  clover  and  it  is  relished  even  more,  but 
it  is  easily  injured  by  rain  while  being  cured. 

3.  The  seed  is  not  commonly  fed  to  live  stock, 
but  it  furnishes  an  excellent  food  for  them.     The 
seed  crop  is  more  precarious  to  grow  than  that  of 
many  other  farm  crops. 

4.  It  is  very  probable  that  the  common  vetch 
can  be  utilized  with  much  advantage  in  growing  pas- 
ture for  swine  in  conjunction  with  clover,  but  this 
does  not  seem  to  have  been  proved  by  actual  test  in 
the  United   States.     The  seed  of  both   should  be 
sown  early,  and  it  will  probably  be  found  necessary 
to  pasture  the  vetches  so  closely  that  they  will  not 
at  any  time  get  beyond  the  hight  of  six  inches. 

THE   SAND  VETCH. 

The  sand  vetch  (Vicia  villosa)  has  but  recently 
come  into  prominence  in  the  United  States.  As  yet 
it  has  been  tested  in  only  a  few  localities,  and  in  a 
majority  of  instances  only  in  an  imperfect  way. 
Much  caution,  therefore,  should  be  observed  in  dis- 
cussing its  merits,  and  also  the  various  methods  of 
growing  it,  until  these  become  better  understood.  In 
both  respects  the  author  has  but  little  to  fall  back 
upon  save  his  own  limited  experience. 

The  plants  are  naturally  creeping  in  their  habit 


122  FORAGE    CROPS. 

of  growth.  When  young,  especially,  the  tendrils 
hug  the  ground  closely.  They  are  tiny  and  spindling 
at  first,  but  after  a  time  they  grow  with  much  vigor 
(Fig.  1 6).  On  the  cultivated  plat  grown  at  the 
Minnesota  University  experiment  station  in  1897, 
many  of  the  plants  produced  each  from  eight  to  ten 
runners,  not  a  few  of  which  reached  the  length  of 
eighteen  to  twenty  feet.  Each  of  the  runners  pro- 
duced numerous  tendrils,  from,  say,  three  to  five  feet 
in  length.  These  so  intertwined  that  it  was  almost 
impossible  to  pull  away  a  single  plant  entire  from 
the  surrounding  mass.  When  well  advanced  in 
growth  the  runners  are  tough  and  consequently  hard 
to  pull  asunder  by  the  animals  in  eating  them. 

Distribution. — The  sand  vetch  is  very  hardy 
and  is  therefore  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  distri- 
bution. It  is  pretty  certain  that  it  may  be  grown 
in  any  part  of  the  United  States,  although  only  in 
some  localities  will  it  be  found  more  profitable  than 
the  common  vetch.  Where  it  cannot  endure  the 
cold  of  winter  it  will  not  be  so  profitable  as  when 
grown  under  conditions  the  opposite.  It  cannot  be 
so  profitably  grown,  therefore,  in  the  northern  states 
as  in  those  further  south.  It  has  never  yet  survived 
the  winter  at  the  Minnesota  University  experiment 
station,  although  the  uneaten  forage  produced  by  it 
has  been  injured  less  by  severe  frosts  prior  to  the 
falling  of  the  snow  than  the  forage  produced  by  any 
other  plant  grown  at  the  station.  It  will  doubtless 
equal  the  common  winter  vetch  in  hardihood,  and 
therefore  can  be  grown  in  latitudes  adapted  to  the 
growth  of  the  former.  It  should  survive  the  win- 
ters, speaking  in  a  general  way,  in  localities  south  of 
the  4Oth  parallel  of  north  latitude,  and  also  in  some 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS. 


I23 


3 


124  FORAGE    CROPS, 

localities  several  degrees  north  of  that  line.  In 
Canada  its  cultivation  is  not  likely  to  prove 
profitable. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Since  the  sand  vetch  is 
a  legume,  and  since  it  would  seem  to  be  more  suitable 
in  providing  pasture  than  for  any  other  use,  it 
should  usually  be  grown  between  two  crops  of  grain, 
as  when  thus  grown  it  has  a  cleaning  and  also  a  reno^ 
vating  influence  upon  the  land. 

Soil. — As  the  name  would  indicate,  the  sand 
vetch  has  special  adaptation  for  sandy  soils.  It 
would  seem  to  have  a  decided  capacity  to  grow  on 
light  sands  too  poor  to  produce  good  crops  of  the 
common  vetch,  the  cowpea  or  crimson  clover.  But 
it  will,  of  course,  grow  more  vigorously  on  a  better 
class  of  soils. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — In  preparing  the  soil  for 
the  sand  vetch  the  aim  should  be  to  secure  a  fine  seed 
bed.  It  is  not  usually  difficult  to  do  so  on  light  soils, 
but  such  soils  should  also  be  firmed  by  running  the 
roller  over  them  before  sowing  the  seed.  In  some 
of  the  southern  states  the  seed  of  the  sand  vetch 
may  be  sown  on  stubble  land  from  which  grain 
crops  have  been  removed  and  then  covered  with 
the  harrow. 

Sowing  the  Seed.  —  Where  the  plants  are 
unable  to  endure  the  cold  of  winter,  the  seed  can 
only  be  sown  in  the  spring.  At  the  Minnesota  Uni- 
versity experiment  station,  results  somewhat  encour- 
aging were  obtained  from  sowing  the  seed  along 
with  oats.  One  bushel  of  the  vetch  seed  was  used 
per  acre  along  with  half  that  amount  of  oats.  The 
oats  were  cut  for  hay  when  nicely  out  in  head.  A 
considerable  proportion  of  the  mixture  consisted  of 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  125 

vetches.  While  the  oats  were  thus  growing  into  a 
crop,  the  vetch  plants  had  become  firmly  established. 
Although  they  did  not  make  a  vigorous  growth  until 
after  the  oats  were  harvested,  they  then  grew  up 
and  covered  the  ground  with  a  dense  carpet  of  fine 
foliage,  which  was  pastured  off  by  sheep  just  as  the 
winter  was  closing  in.  The  late  season  at  which 
this  plant  can  be  pastured  furnishes  one  reason  why, 
in  some  instances,  it  should  be  sown  rather  than  rape. 

The  attempts  made  by  the  author  to  growr  the 
vetches  for  autumn  pasture  by  sowing  them  along 
with  oats  grown  as  a  grain  crop,  and  in  the  ordinary 
way,  were  not  altogether  successful.  The  shade  of 
the  oats  appeared  to  be  too  dense  for  the  vetches. 
But  the  circumstances  under  which  the  trials  were 
made  were  so  unfavorable  that  quite  a  different 
result  may  possibly  be  obtained  where  the  conditions 
are  more  favorable. 

Where  the  plants  will  survive  the  winter  they 
can  be  most  profitably  sown  in  the  autumn  and  as 
early  as  the  arrival  of  the  fall  rains.  It  is  then  usual 
to  sow  the  seed  along  with  winter  oats  or  winter 
rye.  The  latter  is  perhaps  preferable,  first,  on 
account  of  its  greater  hardihood,  and,  second, 
because  of  its  greater  ability  to  grow  on  poor  land. 
The  grain  is  sown  \vith  the  vetch  to  furnish  variety 
in  the  pasture  and  to  provide  stems  on  which  the 
latter  may  climb,  but  when  the  crop  is  pastured,  the 
necessity  of  thus  providing  support  for  the  vetches 
would  not  seem  to  exist. 

However,  the  grain  may  greatly  assist  the  vetch 
in  checking  weed  growth.  The  vetch  starts  so 
slowly  that  alone  it  would  seem  to  have  but  little 
chance  of  ascendancy  in  the  contest  with  weeds.  One 


126  FORAGE    CROPS. 

bushel  of  the  vetch  seed  and  one-half  bushel  of  the 
nurse  crop  are  usually  sown  per  acre.  But  the  pro- 
portions in  which  to  blend  the  seed  that  will  be  found 
the  most  suitable  for  each  locality  can  only  be  ascer- 
tained by  actual  test. 

Cultivation. — When  the  sand  vetch  is  sown 
alone  or  with  some  other  crop,  it  would  not  seem  to 
be  necessary,  usually,  to  give  it  any  cultivation.  But 
in  some  instances  a  light  harrow  may  be  run  over 
the  land  with  decided  advantage  just  before  the 
plants  appear,  and  later  the  weeder  may  sometimes 
be  thus  used  also.  It  may,  however,  be  sown  in 
rows  and  cultivated.  In  the  plot  thus  grown  at  the 
Minnesota  University  experiment  station,  the  rows 
were  thirty  inches  apart.  A  ^beautiful  and  dense 
mass  of  foliage  was  secured  which  lay  along  upon 
the  ground  to  the  depth  of  one  to  two  feet.  The 
yield  was  at  the  rate  of  15.11  tons  of  green  food  per 
acre.  But  it  will  not  pay  to  grow  the  sand  vetch 
thus,  because  of  the  labor  involved  in  keeping  the 
land  clear  while  the  plants  are  young.  The  creep- 
ing habit  of  the  tendrils  adds  much  to  the  labor  of 
cultivation. 

Pasturing. — Unquestionably  the  sand  vetch  has 
better  adaptability  for  providing  pasture  than  for 
providing  soiling  food,  fodder,  or  green  manure. 
Nevertheless,  some  experiments  in  the  southern 
states  speak  favorably  of  its  adaptation  to  the  pro- 
duction of  soiling  food  and  also  hay.  When  well 
advanced  in  growth  it  is  not  easily  harvested,  because 
of  the  length  and  intertwining  character  of  the  ten- 
drils. And,  for  the  same  reason,  it  is  not  easily 
buried  with  the  plow.  If  pastured  off  by  sheep 
when  not  too  far  advanced  it  should  readily  grow 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  127 

up  again  and  again.  Figure  17  represents  sheep  pas- 
turing on  sand  vetches,  October  30,  1897.  The 
mass  of  vine  held  aloft  by  the  young  man  who 
appears  in  the  picture  represents  a  single  plant. 
\Yhen  the  growth  has  become  well  advanced,  sheep 
do  not  care  to  eat  the  stronger  and  more  woody  por- 
tion of  the  tendrils. 

Observations. — i.  Where  the  common  winter 
vetch  can  be  grown  successfully,  it  will  probably  be 
found  superior  to  the  sand  vetch  in  providing  soiling 
food  and  fodder,  since  it  is  more  upright  in  its  habit 
of  growth,  is  much  more  easily  harvested  and  is  less 
tough  in  the  stems. 

2.  When  sowing  sand  vetches  along  with  win- 
ter rye  or  other  winter  crops,  the  plan  of  sowing  the 
combined  crops"  at  the  same  time  would  seem  to  be 
a  good  one. 

3.  The  sand  vetch  could  possibly  be  utilized  in 
crowding  out  ferns  that  overshadow  more  useful 
forms  of  growth  in  Washington  and  Oregon,  by 
simply   scattering   the   seed   and   not   grazing   too 
closely.     And  in  the  southern  states  it  may  yet  be 
made  to  serve  a  similar  purpose  with  other  forms 
of  weed  life. 

4.  The  seed  of  the  sand  vetch  cannot  be  grown 
successfully  in  any  of  the  northern  states  of  the 
Union  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains.     At  the  Min- 
nesota experiment  station  only  a  few  of  the  pods 
matured  seed. 

THE  COWPEA. 

The  cowpea  (Dolichos  Chinensis)  is  proving  an 
unmingled  blessing  to  the  agriculturists  of  the 
United  States,  and  more  especially  to  those  of  them 


128 


FORAGE    CROPS. 


> 

-2  s 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  I2Q 

who  dwell  in  the  southern  half  of  the  republic.  It 
is  now  being  grown  for  table  use,  for  forage,  for 
soiling  food,  and  for  winter  fodder.  But  its  great- 
est value,  probably,  lies  in  its  power,  first,  to  grow 
in  worn  and  poor  soils,  and,  second,  in  its  power  to 
renovate  them.  This  renovating  power  arises,  first, 
from  the  ability  of  this  plant  to  gather  nitrogen  from 
the  air  and  to  store  it  in  the  soil ;  second,  from  the 
large  amount  of  vegetable  matter  which  it  brings 
to  the  soil  in  its  roots  and  also  in  the  vines  when 
plowed  under ;  and,  third,  from  the  beneficial  effects 
which  it  exerts  upon  the  soil  mechanically. 

Formerly  the  cowpea  was  grown  more  as  a  fer- 
tilizer than  as  a  food  plant;  hence  it  was  generally 
considered  good  practice  to  plow  under  the  entire 
crop.  But  since  it  has  been  demonstrated  that  the 
vines  are  even  more  valuable  than  the  grain  in  fur- 
nishing food  for  stock,  and  that  much  fertility  is 
stored  up  in  the  roots,  the  practice  of  using  the  vines 
and  the  grain  as  food  is  becoming  quite  common. 

The  cowpea  resembles  the  bean  more  closely 
than  the  pea.  In  its  habit  of  growth  it  is  trailing, 
recumbent,  semi-recumbent  or  erect,  according  to 
the  variety  and  the  favorable  nature  or  otherwise  of 
the  surroundings.  It  has  great  power  to  gather 
food,  even  on  poor  soils,  hence  it  can  be  grown  on 
soils  too  poor  even  for  growing  clover.  This  fact, 
linked  with  its  ability  to  withstand  drouth,  renders 
it  simply  indispensable  to  the  farmers  of  the  southern 
and  southwestern  states,  and  also  to  those  of  the 
central  states. 

The  cowpea  will  not  grow  satisfactorily  in  a 
cold  climate,  hence,  where  the  common  field  pea 
flourishes  the  cowpea  languishes,  and  where  the  com- 

• 

9 


130  FORAGE    CROPS. 

mon  field  pea  begins  to  show  signs  of  trouble  or  dis- 
tress, from  the  excessive  heat,  the  cowpea  begins  to 
flourish ;  accordingly  it  would  not  be  incorrect  to  say 
that  the  southern  isothermal  for  the  common  field 
pea  is  the  northern  isothermal  for  the  cowpea.  Either 
one  of  these  plants,  therefore,  may  be  said  to  be  the 
complement  of  the  other  in  the  economy  of  our 
agriculture. 

The  cowpea  is  of  very  many  varieties.  These 
are  nearly  all  the  product  of  the  present  century, 
and  the  number  is  continually  increasing.  They 
differ  very  much  in  their  habits  of  growth.  These 
differences  are  such  as  relate,  first,  to  the  strength 
of  the  vine  and  the  amount  of  foliage  and  fruit 
which  it  bears;  second,  to  the  character  of  the 
growth,  as  erect,  trailing  or  intermediate;  third,  to 
the  size,  shape  and  color  of  the  leaves,  blossoms, 
pods  and  peas,  respectively;  and,  fourth,  to  the  time 
of  maturing.  These  differences  cannot  be  dwelt 
upon  here.  Among  the  favorite  varieties  in  the 
south  are  the  Unknown,  sometimes  called  Wonder- 
ful, the  Clay  and  the  Whippoorwill  or  Speckled. 
Among  the  favorite  varieties  in  northerly  latitudes 
are  the  Whippoorwill  and  the  Black. 

Distribution. — It  has  already  been  intimated 
that  the  cowpea  is  a  child  of  the  sun,  and  that  in  con- 
sequence it  is  not  adapted  to  cool  latitudes.  In  its 
most  perfect  form  it  cannot  at  present  be  grown  with 
marked  success  east  of  the  Mississippi  and  north  of 
forty  degrees,  that  is  to  say,  north  of  the  cities  of 
Philadelphia,  Columbus,  Indianapolis  and  Spring- 
field, in  the  states  of  Pennsylvania,  Ohio,  Indiana 
and  Illinois,  respectively.  West  of  the  Mississippi 
the  line  would  run  across  the  states  of  Iowa, 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  13! 

Nebraska,  Wyoming,  Idaho  and  Oregon,  till  it 
reaches  the  Cascade  mountains.  It  would  then  turn 
south  to  the  northern  boundary  of  California,  which 
it  would  follow  to  the  ocean.  In  some  favored  val- 
leys this  plant  can  be  grown  north  of  the  line  thus 
drawn,  and  on  many  elevations  south  of  that  line  it 
cannot  be  successfully  grown.  But  it  will  probably 
be  found  that  north  of  that  line  the  common  field  pea 
can  better  be  made  to  serve  any  ends  sought  by 
growing  the  cowpea,  and  vice  versa.  But  beyond 
all  question  the  limit  of  the  successful  production 
of  the  cowpea  will  be  extended  further  to  the  north 
in  the  near  future.  Providence  is  good,  nature  is 
accommodating  and  man  is  wise.  By  a  careful 
choice  of  varieties,  coupled  with  rigid  selection  of 
the  early  maturing  seeds  from  vigorous  plants,  it 
will  be  found  that  the  line  of  successful  growth  of 
cowpeas  will  be  pushed  much  further  to  the  north, 
as  has  been  done  in  growing  Indian  corn.  Within 
the  past  three  months  and  since  the  above  was  for- 
warded for  publication,  cowpeas  of  the  Early  Black 
variety  have  been  grown  for  pasture  and  grazed 
off  by  sheep  with  much  success  at  the  Minnesota 
University  experiment  farm,  as  seen  in  Figure  18. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — The  cowpea  being  a 
legume  should  be  made  to  follow  a  crop  that  had 
drawn  heavily  on  the  nitrogen  in  the  soil,  as,  for 
instance,  a  crop  of  grain  or  corn.  And  since  it  is 
a  soil  renovator  it  ought  to  be  followed  by  some  such 
crop  as  cotton,  or  corn,  or  sugar  cane.  And  since 
in  the  south,  where  there  is  a  long  season  for  growth, 
the  cowpea  can  be  grown  as  a  catch  crop,  it  may  be 
made  to  follow  such  winter  crops  as  rye,  rape, 
vetches  or  oats,  and  it  may  also  be  made  to  come 


132 


FORAGE    CROPS. 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  133 

after  any  garden  or  field  crop  that  has  been  har- 
vested early,  as  potatoes,  for  instance.  When  soils 
are  much  worn  a  crop  of  cowpeas  turned  under  after 
rye  will  bring  speedy  renovation  to  the  land.  And 
if  the  peas  should  be  pastured  off  upon  the  land,  the 
soil  would  still  be  left  almost  as  rich  as  though  the 
entire  crop  had  been  buried.  Hence  it  is  that  the 
growing  of  cowrpeas  for  soil  renovation  and  pas- 
turing them  off  may  go  hand  in  hand.  And  since, 
owing  to  the  long  season  of  open  weather  in  the 
south,  two  crops  can  oftentimes  be  growrn  in  suc- 
cession in  one  season  for  renovating  the  land,  two 
can  also  be  grown  in  one  season  for  pasture. 

Soil. — Cowpeas  will  grow  better  on  a  rich  soil 
than  on  a  soil  that  is  poor.  But  in  soils  that  are 
overrich,  they  will  produce  an  excess  of  vine  in  pro- 
portion to  the  fruit  which  they  bear.  Notwithstand- 
ing, one  of  the  grand  properties  of  the  cowpea  arises 
from  its  ability  to  grow  in  poor  soils.  It  is  a  deep 
and  also  a  gross  feeder;  hence,  when  once  started, 
the  plants  will  go  down  into  the  subsoil  and  gather 
food  to  sustain  growth  in  soils  where  various  other 
useful  farm  products  would  pine  and  die. 

Though  this  plant  will  give  a  good  account  of 
itself  on  poor  soils  even,  it  is  much  better  able  to  do 
so  when  some  fertilizer,  as  superphosphate,  for 
instance,  has  first  been  applied  'to  the  land.  The 
cowpea,  however,  like  the  common  pea,  will  give  the 
best  returns  from  soils  in  which  the  clay  element  is 
present  in  considerable  quantities.  And  even  on 
stiff,  red  clays,  the  plants  are  able  to  make  a  strong 
growth.  But  they  are  easily  injured  by  a  super- 
abundance of  moisture,  even  though  confined  to 
the  subsoil 


134  FORAGE    CROPS. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — Since  cowpeas  in  the  south 
may  be  placed  almost  anywhere  in  the  rotation,  since 
they  may  be  sown  as  an  intervening  crop  and  as  a 
catch  crop,  and  since  they  may  be  sown  at  almost 
any  time  during  the  growing  season  when  the  ground 
is  moist  enough  to  sprout  them,  the  methods  to  be 
adopted  in  preparing  the  land  will  of  necessity  vary. 
It  would  unduly  encroach  on  space  to  give  in  detail 
the  mode  of  preparing  the  land  that  would  suit  every 
instance.  But  when  so  preparing  it,  the  aim  should 
be  to  secure  fine  tilth,  a  firm  seed  bed  and  enough 
moisture  to  start  the  crop.  After  a  cultivated  crop 
which  has  been  kept  clean,  such  as  a  crop  of  potatoes, 
it  may  be  well  in  some  instances  simply  to  disk  the 
land  without  plowing  it  when  preparing  it  for  cow- 
peas,  especially  when  there  is  a  scarcity  of  moisture. 
And  this  method  of  preparing,  the  land  for  peas  to 
be  grown  for  pasture  or  to  provide  fertility  after 
a  harvested  crop  on  clean  land,  may  also  be  the  best, 
but  there  may  be  exceptions. 

On  soils  low  in  fertility  it  will  usually  pay  to 
apply  some  fertilizer.  While  farmyard  manure  is 
admirably  adapted  to  promoting  the  growth  of  the 
vines,  it  can  seldom  be  spared  for  this  crop  in  the 
south.  Nor  is  it  considered  strictly  economical  to 
use  it  thus,  since  the  nitrogen  content  in  the  manure 
is  not  absolutely  needed  by  the  pea  crop.  If  nitro- 
gen is  used,  it  can  be  applied  with  advantage  in  the 
form  of  nitrate  of  soda.  The  nitrate  should  be 
sown  broadcast  a  short  time  after  the  crop  has 
appeared  above  ground.  Potash  when  used  should, 
as  a  rule,  be  sparingly  applied,  and  on  some  soils, 
especially  such  as  are  covered  with  oak  or  hickory 
timber,  it  does  not  seem  to  be  needed. 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  135 

On  the  average  southern  soil,  superphosphates 
seem  to  be  the  great  need  of  the  cowpea  crop.  The 
fertilizer  would  seem  to  increase  the  crop  in  propor- 
tion as  it  is  used,  up  to  the  extent  of  400  pounds  per 
acre.  But  a  light  application,  as  light  as  fifty  pounds 
per  acre,  will  render  much  benefit  to  the  same  if 
incorporated  with  the  soil  in  proximity  to  the  seed. 
When  the  peas  are  planted  in  rows  and  cultivated, 
the  superphosphates  should  be  thus  applied,  but  when 
they  are  broadcasted  or  sowrn  with  the  grain  drill, 
all  the  tubes  running,  the  fertilizer  may  also  be 
broadcasted  and  incorporated  with  the  soil  near  the 
surface  while  the  peas  are  being  sown. 

Solving. — The  time  for  sowing  cowpeas  will 
depend  upon  the  climate  and  the  purpose  for  which 
the  peas  are  sown.  Evidently  the  period  during 
which  they  may  be  sown  will,  in  some  localities, 
cover  several  months.  But  in  no  case  should  they 
be  sown  before  both  soil  and  weather  have  become 
warm,  otherwise  the  seed  will  be  almost  certain  to 
rot  in  the  soil.  This  peculiarity  of  the  cowpea 
stands  much  in  the  way  of  growing  it  successfully 
in  the  north.  The  seed  of  this  plant  should  seldom 
be  sown  earlier  than  the  late  corn  planting  season. 

Whether  the  seeds  should  be  sown  broadcast, 
with  the  grain  drill,  using  all  the  tubes,  or  only  some 
of  them,  will  depend  upon  conditions.  The  aim 
should  be  to  avoid  broadcasting  them,  since  when 
thus  sown  it  is  not  easy  to  cover  them  with  the  har- 
row so  that  the  rain  will  not  wash  them  out.  But 
the  disk  harrow,  followed  by  the  ordinary  harrow, 
could  be  made  to  provide  a  sufficient  covering  when 
the  seed  is  thus  broadcasted.  If  sown  for  sheep 
pasture,  ordinarily  the  seed  drill  ought  to  be  used, 


136  FORAGE    CROPS. 

all  the  tubes  working.  Forage  fine  rather  than 
coarse  will  thus  be  secured.  When  sown  to  provide 
pasture  for  cattle,  in  many  instances  only  every  other 
drill  tube  is  used.  The  pasture  is  then  stronger,  but 
it  is  also  coarser  than  when  sown  with  all  the  tubes 
in  use.  If  sown  only  for  the  grain  or  to  provide 
swine  pasture,  the  rows  are  planted  still  wider,  that 
horse  cultivation  may  be  given  them.  It  is  mani- 
fest, therefore,  that  the  amount  of  seed  required  will 
vary  with  the  object  sought  when  growing  the  peas. 
While  the  amount  of  seed  required  should  sel- 
dom exceed  one  and  one-half  bushels  per  acre, 
sometimes  only  a  fractional  part  of  that  amount  is 
required. 

The  combinations  with  which  cowpeas  may  be 
grown  as  forage  do  not  appear  to  be  well  ascertained 
as  yet,  but  there  would  seem  to  be  no  good  reason 
why  they  could  not  be  grown  along  with  corn,  sor- 
ghum, rape,  vetches,  and  other  forage  plants.  They 
should  have  special  adaptation  for  being  grown 
along  with  sorghum  for  sheep  pasture. 

Cultivation. — Cowpeas  may  usually  be  har- 
rowed with  some  advantage  to  the  crop  and  to  the 
soil  a  short  time  before  they  appear  above  the  sur- 
face of  the  ground.  But  when  sown  by  hand  it  may 
be  better  to  use  some  form  of  weeder,  lest  the  peas 
be  too  much  disturbed  by  the  process.  Ordinarily 
no  other  cultivation  is  given  when  the  crop  is  grown 
for  pasture  or  for  being  plowed  under,  but  in  some 
instances  a  weeder  and  even  a  light  harrow  may  be 
used  with  advantage  after  the  crop  has  appeared. 
When  grown  for  the  grain  the  horse  cultivation 
should  be  very  similar  to  that  given  to  a  bean  crop, 
It  should  be  sufficiently  frequent  to  keep  the  ground 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  137 

clean  and  moist  until  the  peas  have  grown  so  far 
that  further  cultivation  would  injure  them. 

Pasturing. — \Yhen  cowpeas  are  pastured  with 
sheep,  the  pasturing  may  begin  before  the  peas  have 
reached  the  blossoming  stage,  and  when  pastured 
with  cattle,  about  the  time  that  they  come  into  bloom. 
But  these  statements  are  only  intended  to  be  gen- 
eral. There  may  be  reasons  why,  with  both  these 
classes  of  live  stock,  pasturing  may  be  commenced 
earlier  or  later.  But  when  swine  are  to  pasture 
upon  the  peas,  the  latter  should  be  allowed  to  attain 
full  size  before  turning  the  swine  upon  them.  The 
least  waste  arises  when  the  crop  is  pastured  off 
with  sheep,  and  it  may  be  mentioned  here  that  cow- 
peas  usually  spring  up  vigorously  again  when  grazed 
off.  Especially  is  this  true  of  them  during  the 
earlier  stages  of  growth. 

Observations. — i.  While  cowpeas  make  excel- 
lent forage  when  cured  properly,  they  are  difficult 
to  cure.  They  are,  therefore,  better  adapted  rela- 
tively to  providing  forage  than  hay,  and  this  fact 
should  not  be  overlooked  by  those  who  may  engage 
in  growing  them. 

2.  Cowpeas  would  doubtless  be  much  more 
extensively  grown  for  hay  or  fodder  and  also  for 
the  grain,  but  for  the  difficulty  in  harvesting  them. 
The  ''pea  harvester,"  such  as  is  used  in  Canada  in 
harvesting  field  peas,  should  do  this  work  admirably, 
but  it  does  not  appear  to  have  been  introduced  into 
sections  where  cowpeas  are  grown.  It  is  simply  an 
attachment  to  the  field  mower.  This  attachment  is 
inexpensive  and  yet  very  efficient.  With  a  driver 
and  one  man  walking  behind  to  remove  the 
bunches,  cowpeas  may  be  harvested  nearly  as 


FORAGE    CROPS. 

quickly  as  hay,  however  much  the  vines  may  trail 
along  the  ground. 

THE  SOY  BEAN. 

The  soy  bean  (Glycine  hispida)  was  probably 
introduced  into  the  United  States  from  Japan  more 
than  twenty  years  ago.  Like  cowpeas,  it  may  be 
grown  for  the  grain,  for  soiling  food,  for  ensilage, 
for  pasture  and  for  green  manuring.  Its  greatest 
value,  however,  will  probably  be  found  in  furnish- 
ing soiling  food  for  dairy  cows,  as  it  is  in  the  proper 
condition  for  being  thus  fed  at  that  season  of 
the  year  when  but  few  plants  are  available  for 
such  a  use ;  that  is  to  say,  during  the  latter  part 
of  summer. 

The  soy  bean,  like  the  cowpea,  is  a  hot  weather 
plant,  but  it  would  seem  to  be  able  to  stand  more 
drouth  than  the  former.  It  has  much  adaptation, 
therefore,  for  localities  that  are  both  warm  and  dry. 
When  once  well  rooted,  hot  winds  that  would  wilt 
and  wither  many  other  forms  of  vegetation  will  not 
seriously  injure  the  soy  bean. 

Some  authorities  claim  that  the  soy  bean  will 
not  succeed  so  well  on  poor  soils  as  the  cowpea. 
Nevertheless,  it  can  be  successfully  grown  on  soils 
low  in  fertility,  and  may  therefore,  like  the  cowpea, 
be  turned  to  good  account  as  a  renovator  of  the  soil. 

Experience  in  pasturing  the  soy  bean  in  the 
United  States  has  not  been  extensive.  It  is  impos- 
sible, therefore,  at  present  to  give  its  precise  value 
as  a  pasture  plant  under  American  conditions.  But 
since  it  is  stiffer  in  the  stem  and  more  erect  in  its 
habit  of  growth  than  the  cowpea,  and  in  conse- 
quence is  more  easily  broken  off  than  the  latter,  it 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS.  139 

should  prove  less  valuable  relatively  in  providing 
pasture,  especially  for  cattle  and  sheep. 

This  plant,  like  the  cowpea,  develops  somewhat 
slowly  at  first,  especially  in  northerly  latitudes,  but 
later  it  grows  more  rapidly.  In  appearance  it 
resembles  a  common  bean,  but  the  foliage  is  larger 
and  much  more  luxuriant,  and  the  habit  of  growth 
is  more  upright,  as  previously  intimated.  With  all 
the  conditions  favorable  this  plant  in  some  of  its 
varieties  will  grow  to  the  hight  of  at  least  four  feet, 
and  it  produces  a  large  yield  of  green  food.  And. 
where  the  seasons  are  long  enough,  the  plants  lade 
heavily  with  pods  which  mature  a  food  for  stock 
that  is  exceedingly  rich  in  protein. 

Distribution. — The  distribution  of  the  soy  bean 
is  not  very  different  from  that  of  the  cowpea,  at  least 
so  far  as  concerns  climatic  conditions  (see  Page 
130) .  But  some  of  the  early  varieties,  as  the  medium 
or  green,  can  be  grown  successfully  further  north 
than  the  cowpea.  The  claim,  however,  that  they 
will  flourish  as  far  north  as  corn  is  not  quite  correct, 
although  good  results  have  been  obtained  from 
growing  them  at  the  Massachusetts  experiment  sta- 
tion. Since  the  soy  bean  requires  better  land  than 
the  cowpea,  its  distribution  will  be  somewhat  more 
circumscribed,  that  is  to  say,  it  will  be  more  sec- 
tional writhin  the  general  area  where  it  may  be  grown 
at  its  best.  And  since  it  will  stand  drouth  better 
than  the  cowpea,  it  has  special  adaptation  for  some 
of  the  states  west  of  the  Mississippi  and  south  of 
Minnesota,  as,  for  instance,  the  states  of  Kansas, 
Nebraska,  Arkansas  and  Oklahoma. 

While  the  soy  bean  can  be  grown  at  its  best  in 
all  the  states  south  of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the  Mis- 


140  FORAGE    CROPS. 

sissippi,  and  while  it  is  likely  to  prove  worthy  of  an 
important  place  in  the  agriculture  of  these  states,  it 
is  not  likely  that  it  will  ever  wholly  supplant  the 
cowpea.  But  it  may  prove  a  great  aid  to  the  latter 
in  furnishing  food  and  in  renovating  the  soil.  North 
of  the  Ohio  and  east  of  the  Mississippi  the  soy  bean 
can  be  grown  with  more  or  less  success,  even  up  to 
the  Canadian  border.  But  within  much  of  this  area 
it  cannot  be  depended  on  to  mature  its  seeds.  For 
this  reason,  and  for  the  further  reason  that  clover 
grows  well  within  the  same  area,  it  is  likely  that  the 
soy  bean  will  not  be  looked  upon  as  an  indispensable 
crop  within  the  limits  of  the  area  that  is^being  con- 
sidered. .  When  clover  fails,  however,  it  may  some- 
times prove  advantageous  to  sow  soy  beans  to  sup- 
ply the  lack. 

In  the  states  north  of  the  Missouri  and  west  of 
the  Mississippi,  there  is  probably  no  place  for  the 
soy  bean  in  the  economy  of  the  farm,  unless  in  the 
triangle  between  those  rivers  at  the  juncture,  which 
includes  a  part  of  Minnesota,  Iowa  and  South 
Dakota.  In  the  Rocky  mountain  valleys  south 
from  Montana  and  Washington  it  may  grow 
well  under  irrigation,  but  the  excellent  crops  of 
alfalfa  which  grow  in  these  valleys  are  likely  to  ren- 
der its  growth  less  necessary.  In  Canada  the  soy 
bean  is  not  likely  ever  to  gain  a  permanent  foothold, 
unless  its  properties  should  become  considerably 
modified. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — The  place  in  the  rota- 
tion for  the  soy  bean  is  not  far  different  from  that 
of  the  cowpea  (see  Page  131)  It  is  generally 
grown  as  a  cleaning  crop,  and  when  so  grown  it 
ought  to  be  placed  between  two  grain  crops,  if  it  is 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS. 

practicable  to  grow  it  thus.  Its  province  as  a  catch 
crop  is  more  circumscribed  than  that  of  the  cowpea, 
since  in  many  of  its  varieties  it  takes  longer  to 
mature.  Nevertheless,  there  are  many  crops  which 
it  may  be  made  to  follow  the  same  season,  as,  for 
instance,  winter  rye,  winter  wheat,  grain  forage 
eaten  down,  or  an  early  crop  of  potatoes. 

Soil. — A  warm,  rich  vegetable  soil  with  a 
porous  subsoil  is  best  adapted  to  the  growth  of  the 
soy  bean.  The  soils  of  the  fertile  prairie,  therefore, 
are  a  natural  home  for  it.  It  will  also  grow  admir- 
ably in  the  russet  volcanic  ash  soils  of  the  country 
west  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  On  poor,  sandy  soils 
it  will  not  make  a  large  growth  unless  these  are  first 
fertilized.  A  moderate  amount  of  clay  in  the  soil 
is  grateful  to  the  soy  bean,  but  an  excess  of  clay  in 
the  soil  or  subsoil  hinders  growth.  Of  course  a  soil 
saturated  with  water  during  much  of  the  period  of 
growth  would  be  fatal  to  success. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  preparation  of  the 
soil  for  the  soy  bean  is  much  the  same  as  for  the 
cowpea  (see  Page  134).  A  reep,  fine,  firm  and 
moist  seed  bed  should  be  sought.  But  this  does  not 
necessarily  imply  that  the  plowing  shall  be  deep 
when  done  in  the  early  summer  and  on  the  dry  soils 
of  the  prairie.  When  the  soy  bean  is  planted  after 
a  grain  crop  which  has  just  matured,  a  free  use  of 
the  harrow  and  roller  should  be  made  in  a  normal 
season  to  conserve  moisture.  When  the  soil  needs 
fertilizing,  those  fertilizers  which  are  most  needed 
by  the  cowpea  are  also  most  needed  by  the  soy  bean, 
and  the  mode  of  applying  them  is  also  similar  (see 
Page  1 34). 

Sowing. — Soy  beans  are  commonly  sown  on 


142  FORAGE    CROPS. 

level  land,  but  there  may  be  some  few  instances  when 
raised  drills  would  be  superior.  When  sown  for  the 
grain,  for  ensilage,  for  soiling  food  or  for  hay  they 
are  put  in  with  the  grain  drill.  But  they  may  also 
be  planted  with  a  corn  planter  or  a  bean  planter.  It 
is  customary  to  make  the  rows  about  thirty  inches 
apart.  If  the  crop  were  grown  for  pasture  the 
rows  could  be  made  considerably  closer,  under  some 
conditions,  but  not  so  close  as  to  preclude  cultiva- 
tion, except  such  as  may  be  given  with  the  har- 
row. There  may  be  instances  when  it  would  be 
advisable  to  broadcast  a  crop  of  soy  beans.  When 
the  rows  are  thirty  inches  apart,  from  two  to  four 
pecks  of  seed  will  suffice  per  acre.  If  the  rows  were 
placed  closer,  as  for  growing  forage,  more  seed 
ought  to  be  used. 

The  soy  bean  and  the  cowpea  should  grow 
fairly  well  together.  The  beans  would  furnish 
some  support  to  the  peas.  But  further  experiments 
are  required  before  it  can  be  claimed  that  this  method 
of  growing  them  has  any  decided  advantage  over 
growing  the  beans  separately.  At  no  time  should 
the  seed  be  sown  earlier  than  the  corn  planting  sea- 
son, and  north  of  the  4Oth  parallel  of  latitude  it 
ought  to  be  planted  later.  But  south  of  that  line, 
good  crops  have  been  grown,  the  seed  of  which  was 
not  planted  until  July.  In  the  north,  early  varieties 
only  should  be  sown,  and  even  in  the  south  very  late 
varieties  ought  not  to  be  used. 

Cultivation. — The  cultivation  suitable  for  the 
soy  bean  is  about  the  same  as  that  which  ought  to  be 
given  to  the  cowpea  (see  Page  136).  A  harrow 
with  the  teeth  aslant  can  be  used  with  advantage 
before  the  beans  are  up,  and  also  in  some  instances 


LEGUMINOUS    PLANTS 


If 

3    3 

II 


UNIVERSITY 


144  FORAGE    CROPS. 

at  a  later  period.  The  cultivation  should  be  prompt 
and  generous,  more  especially  when  the  plants 
are  young. 

Pasturing. — But  little  can  be  said  as  to  the  best 
modes  of  pasturing  off  this  crop  in  the  present  state 
of  our  knowledge.  It  has  not  been  much  grown  for 
pasture,  although  some  instances  are  on  record 
where  it  has  been  so  grown.  There  would  seem  to 
be  no  good  reasons  why  it  should  not  be  pastured  off 
by  sheep  and  swine  and  even  by  cattle,  although 
cattle  would  doubtless  waste  more  or  less  through 
treading  upon  the  plants.  At  the  Minnesota  Univer- 
sity experiment  station,  lambs  fed  off  the  pods  and 
leaves,  but  not  the  coarse  stems.  Cattle  and  sheep 
unused  to  soy  bean  pasture  might  not  take  kindly  to 
it  at  first,  but  doubtless  they  would  soon  become 
fond  of  it.  A  view  of  sheep  pasturing  on  soy  beans 
is  presented  in  Figure  19. 

Observations. — i.  For  making  hay,  the  soy 
bean  should  be  cut  when  the  beans  in  the  pod  are 
fully  half  grown,  or  before  the  lower  leaves  begin 
to  fall  freely,  and  the  aim  should  be  to  handle  it  but 
little  during  the  curing  process,  lest  many  of  the 
leaves  should  be  lost. 

2.  The  soy  bean  is  an  excellent  soiling  plant, 
since  it  produces  a  large  yield  of  green  food  per 
acre  and  very  rich  in  quality. 

3.  When  mixed  with  corn  in  the  silo  the  qual- 
ity of  the  ensilage  is  thereby  considerably  improved. 


CHAPTER  VII. 

RAPE  AND  CABBAGE. 

Several  plants  of  the  Brassica  genus  have  been 
grown  as  forage  for  many  years  in  Great  Britain 
and  other  European  countries,  and  so  they  will  be, 
doubtless,  in  the  near  future  in  the  United  States. 
Only  two  of  these,  viz.,  rape  and  cabbage,  will  be 
considered  here,  as  these  are  the  only  two  species  of 
this  genus  that  have  hitherto  been  grown  for  forage 
on  this  continent.  Some  of  the  other  plants  of  the 
Brassica  genus  that  may  yet  be  introduced  will  be 
considered  in  Chapter  XL  Of  these  two  plants, 
rape  is  unquestionably  the  more  important  for  for- 
age, but  the  day  is  probably  near  wrhen  cabbage  also 
will  be  extensively  grown,  more  especially  to  pro- 
vide late  pasture  for  sheep. 

RAPE. 

The  rape  plant  (Brassica  napus)  is  beyond  all 
question  one  of  the  most  useful  fodder  plants  that 
has  yet  been  introduced  into  the  United  States,  and 
so  it  is  likely  to  continue  through  all  time.  In  writ- 
ing to  the  agricultural  press  in  1890,  the  author  ven- 
tured the  opinion  that  the  day  would  come  wrhen 
10,000,000  sheep  and  lambs  would  be  fattened  every 
year  in  the  United  States  on  rape.  Why  should 
such  a  statement  be  looked  upon  as  extravagant? 
It  would  require  only  1,000,000  acres  of  rape  to 
accomplish  such  an  end. 

•10  145 


146  FORAGE    CROPS. 

The  rape  plant  has  been  grown  for  forage  in 
Great  Britain  and  some  other  countries  of  Europe  for 
about  200  years.  It  is  also  probable  that  for  many 
years  it  has  been  grown  for  a  similar  use  in  limited 
areas  of  the  United  States,  but  not  to  any  great 
extent  until  quite  recently.  Its  superlative  value  as  a 
fodder  plant  for  sheep  is  even  now  not  known  to  one 
among  a  thousand  of  our  farmers.  The  isolated 
few  who  grew  it  did  so  mainly  as  an  aid  in 
preparing  their  sheep  for  competing  at  the  live 
stock  fairs.  Many  of  them  did  so  in  a  sort  of 
secretive  way.  So  long  as  their  competitors  did 
not  know  its  value,  the  growers  of  rape  felt 
that  in  the  show  rings  they  would  have  an  advan- 
tage over  their  rivals  who  were  ignorant  of  the 
virtues  of  the  plant. 

In  Wellington  and  two  or  three  of  the  other 
counties  of  Ontario,  rape  has  been  grown  in  con- 
siderable quantities  for  nearly  a  quarter  of  a  cen- 
tury, if  not  indeed  for  a  longer  period,  but  except 
in  these  counties  rape  does  not  seem  to  have  been 
grown  elsewhere  in  Canada  prior  to  the  experiments 
conducted  with  it  by  the  author  at  the  Ontario  gov- 
ernment farm  at  Guelph.  These  experiments  began 
in  1889.  The  first  bulletin  based  upon  them 
appeared  in  1890.  At  that  time  it  was  affirmed  by 
leading  seedsmen  who  were  in  a  position  to  know 
that  there  were  not  500  pounds  of  rape  seed  sold  per 
annum  to  provide  sheep  pasture  in  all  the  United 
States.  The  same  authorities  have  expressed  the 
opinion  that  in  1897  not  ^ess  tnan  500,000  pounds  of 
rape  seed  were  sold  by  the  seedsmen  of  the 
same,  that  is  to  say,  enough  to  sow  125,000  to 
150,000  acres.  It  would  now  be  hazardous  to 


RAPE    AND    CABBAGE.  147 

try  to  fix  any  limits  to  extension  in  the  growth 
of  this  plant. 

Rape  will  grow  in  one  form  or  another  in  nearly 
all  parts  of  this  continent.  The  season  for  sowing 
it  usually  covers  a  period  of  about  three  months.  In 
some  climates  it  covers  a  period  considerably  longer. 
The  farmer,  therefore,  can  generally  find  some  spot 
on  which  to  grow  it  without  diminishing  the  area  of 
the  other  crops  grown.  It  can  be  sown  in  a  score 
of  different  ways  and  under  a  score  of  different  con- 
ditions. When  once  started  it  will  stand  much 
drouth  and  cold.  If  desired  it  may  be  so  grown 
that  the  cultivation  given  to  it  will  be  found  pecul- 
iarly helpful  in  cleaning  the  land  (Fig.  20).  It 
furnishes  one  of  the  finest  pastures  for  sheep  and 
swine  that  can  be  grown  for  them,  and  it  makes 
excellent  soiling  food  for  any  class  of  live  stock  kept 
upon  the  farm.  It  may  be  grown  as  a  catch  crop 
and  also  as  a  green  manure.  It  is  indeed  a  veritable 
jewel  among  the  forage  crops  of  this  country,  as  in 
addition  to  the  good  qualities  just  enumerated,  its 
food  value,  pound  for  pound,  is  about  twrice  that  of 
green  clover,  and  it  will  usually  grow  about  twice  as 
much  per  acre. 

The  rape  plant  bears  a  close  resemblance  to  the 
rutabaga  in  the  early  stages  of  its  growth.  So  close 
is  this  resemblance  that  an  expert  cannot  distinguish 
between  them.  The  former,  however,  becomes  more 
upright  as  it  develops  and  produces  much  more  of 
top  than  the  latter,  but  its  root  is  fusiform  and  there- 
fore of  no  value  for  food  purposes.  Its  many  prongs 
and  long  rootlets  penetrate  the  soil  in  all  directions, 
hence  it  is  a  gross  feeder  and  draws  heavily  on  the 
soil.  But  since  it  is  commonly  pastured  off  by  live 


148 


FORAGE    CROPS. 


P 

S.s 


RAPE    AND    CABBAGE.  149 

stock  where  it  has  grown,  the  soil  will  not  be 
depleted  of  its  fertility  where  rape  has  been  thus 
grown  and  pastured. 

Rape  is  an  annual.  It  is  of  several  varieties. 
Some  of  these  mature  their  seeds  the  same  year  that 
they  are  sown.  Such  are  the  varieties  that  are  sown 
to  provide  food  for  certain  birds  and  also  to  furnish 
oil.  But  sometimes  the  winter  varieties  are  used 
to  furnish  oil.  The  summer  varieties  are  not  of 
much  value  for  forage,  since  the  proportion  of  leaf 
growth  upon  them  is  small,  the  season  for  pasturing 
them  is  brief,  as  the  stems  which  shoot  upward  to 
sustain  the  seed  pods  \vhen  formed  soon  become  so 
woody  that  live  stock  do  not  relish  them.  The 
varieties  that  are  really  valuable  for  forage  do  not 
mature  seed  the  same  year  that  they  are  sown,  and 
of  these  the  Dwarf  Essex  is  probably  the  best. 
Indeed,  it  is  about  the  only  kind  that  has  heretofore 
been  thought  worthy  of  cultivation  in  this  country. 

Distribution. — The  Dwarf  Essex  rape  can  be 
grown  with  more  or  less  success  in  nearly  all  the 
arable  portions  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
providing  due  attention  is  given  to  the  requisite 
variations  as  to  the  time  and  also  as  to  the  method  of 
sowing  it  in  the  various  states  and  provinces.  It  is 
what  may  be  termed  a  cool  weather  plant,  hence  in 
growing  it  the  best  results  relatively  may  be  looked 
for  in  the  states  which  extend  northward  to  the 
Canadian  boundary.  And  in  the  tier  of  states  that 
lie  immediately  to  the  south  of  these  border  states, 
fairly  good  crops  may  be  grown.  But  the  adapt- 
ability of  the  republic  to  rape  production  would  seem 
to  lessen  with  the  increase  in  distance  from  the 
northern  boundary  line,  and  yet  there  is  perhaps  no 


I5O  FORAGE    CROPS. 

state  in  the  Union  in  which  the  rape  plant  cannot 
be  turned  to  good  account  in  furnishing  forage,  pro- 
viding it  is  grown  at  that  season  of  the  year  when 
the  temperature  is  best  adapted  to  its  growth.  Moist 
and  moderately  cool  climates  are  the  most  favorable 
to  the  growth  of  rape,  hence  it  does  particularly 
well  in  those  portions  of  New  England  where  the 
soil  is  sufficiently  rich  to  grow  it,  and  also  on  the 
final  slope  of  the  Pacific  coast,  in  Oregon,  Washing- 
ton and  British  Columbia.  All  the  arable  portions 
of  Canada  will  grow  rape  in  good  form,  but  in  none 
of  the  provinces  does  it  succeed  better  than  in 
Ontario. 

The  seed  is  all  imported  at  present  from  Great 
Britain  and  other  European  countries.  It  cannot 
be  grown  with  much  success  in  the  northern  and 
middle  states,  and  in  the  provinces  of  Canada,  east 
of  the  Rocky  mountains,  owing  to  the  coldness  of 
the  winters.  In  some  of  the  states  that  lie  pretty 
well  to  the  southward  and  that  are  also  favored  with 
a  goodly  supply  of  moisture,  it  may  be  demonstrated 
that  rape  seed  may  be  grown  with  success.  And 
on  the  Pacific  slopes,  more  especially  those  which 
border  on  Puget  Sound,  the  indications  all  point 
to  singular  adaptability  for  the  production  of  the 
seed  of  this  plant  (Fig.  21). 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — When  rape  is  sown  in 
drills  and  properly  cultivated  it  becomes  a  cleaning 
crop  which  may  be  made  as  effective  as  the  best 
managed  bare  fallow  in  cleaning  the  soil.  If  thus 
grown  it  may  be  given  any  place  in  the  rotation,  but 
on  account  of  the  beneficent  influence  on  the  crops 
that  follow,  it  may  be  well  to  sow  it  on  land  that 
needs  to  be  freed  from  superabundant  weeds.  When 


RAPE    AND     CABBAGE. 


Fig.  21 .    Rape  Grown  for  Seed. 

Whatcom  County,  Washington. 


152  FORAGE    CROPS. 

sown  broadcast  it  ought  to  be  on  rich  and  clean  land, 
otherwise  the  growth  will  not  be  sufficiently  vigor- 
ous, and  the  weeds  may  choke  the  rape.  If  sown  as 
a  catch  crop  or  as  a  green  manure  it  may  be  made 
to  follow  any  kind  of  crop,  as  occasion  may 
require,  even  though  weed  seeds  may  be  abundantly 
present  in  the  land,  for  the  pasturing  or  the  plowing 
in  of  the  crop,  as  the  case  may  be,  can  be  done  suffi- 
ciently early  to  prevent  the  maturing  of  weed  seeds 
in  the  rape. 

This  plant  may  usually  be  broadcasted  with 
advantage  on  overturned  sod.  The  abundance  of 
the  vegetable  matter  furnished  by  the  grass  roots 
promotes  growth,  and  such  lands  are  not  so  liable  to 
be  filled  with  weed  seeds  or  other  germs  of  plant  life, 
as  lands  that  have  been  cropped  successively  with 
grain  for  a  term  of  years.  If  rape  is  sown  after  win- 
ter rye,  or  mixed  grains  or  corn  that  has  been  eaten 
off,  two  crops  may  thus  be  obtained  in  a  single  year 
from  the  same  piece  of  sod.  Such  cropping  is  favor- 
able to  the  clearing  of  the  land,  howsoever  the  rape 
may  be  grown.  And  the  same  is  true  when  it  fol- 
lows cereal  crops  or  clover  that  has  been  harvested 
at  maturity.  It  may  also  be  grown  with  much 
advantage  on  land  that  is  being  summer  fallowed, 
whether  the  rape  crop  is  turned  under  or  pastured 
off.  The  aim  should  be  to  follow  rape  that  has  been 
cultivated  with  some  cereal  crop,  because  of  the 
favorable  condition  in  which  it  leaves  the  land  for 
growing  these  crops. 

Soil. — Rape  is  best  adapted  to  what  may  be 
termed  deep,  rich,  moist  and  free  working  soils,  well 
stored  with  humus.  It  grows  magnificently  in  muck 
soils  not  unduly  saturated  with  water  during  the 


RAPE    AND    CABBAGE.  153 

season  of  growth.  On  stiff  clays,  the  seed  is  slow 
of  germination,  and  subsequent  development  on  this 
class  of  soils  is  also  slow.  On  poor,  sandy  lands  it 
may  start  quickly,  but  the  growth  will  not  be  vigor- 
ous unless  fertilizer  in  some  suitable  form  has  been 
freely  applied  to  them.  When  moisture  is  present, 
good  farmyard  manure  is  particularly  favorable  to 
the  growth  of  rape.  Nor  \vould  it  be  easy  to  sup- 
ply the  manure  in  excessive  quantities.  Commer- 
cial fertilizers  rich  in  phosphates  have  been  found 
valuable  in  stimulating  the  growth  of  this  plant. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — In  preparing  the  soil  for 
rape,  much  will  depend  upon  its  nature,  upon  the 
character  of  the  season,  and  upon  the  time  of  year 
when  the  rape  is  sown.  But,  in  any  event,  the  aim 
should  be  to  have  the  seed  bed  fine,  moist,  and  as 
clean  as  it  can  be  made  under  the  conditions.  When 
the  crop  is  sown  early,  moisture  is  usually  present  in 
ample  supply.  If  it  is  sown  in  the  late  spring  or 
during  the  summer  the  roller  should  follow  close 
upon  the  plowing  to  prevent  the  escape  of  moisture. 
When  the  seed  is  sown  early,  or  when  the  rape  crop 
followrs  just  after  the  removal  of  another  crop,  but 
little  can  be  done  by  way  of  sprouting  weed  seeds 
with  a  view  to  destroying  them  before  sowing  the 
rape  seed ;  but  if  it  is  not  sown  until  the  season  is 
advanced  and  on  land  not  previously  cropped  the 
same  year,  there  is  ample  time  to  clean  the  land  on 
and  near  the  surface  before  the  rape  is  sown. 

Sowing.  -  -  The  time  for  sowing  rape  will 
depend,  first,  on  the  object  sought  in  growing  it; 
second,  on  the  nature  of  the  season ;  and,  third,  on 
the  character  of  the  climate.  Rape  sown  for  pas- 
ture will  usually  reach  a  maximum  growth  in  from 


154  FORAGE    CROPS. 

eight  to  twelve  weeks  from  the  time  of  sowing  the 
seed.  To  provide  sheep  pasture,  rape  is  not  com- 
monly sown  until  after  the  season  for  planting  corn, 
as  it  is  in  the  autumn  that  such  pasture  is  most 
wanted.  But  to  provide  swine  pasture  it  ought  to 
be  sown  early,  and  also  later  at  successive  intervals. 
In  countries  with  moist  autumns  and  mild  winters, 
it  may  be  advantageous  to  sow  the  seed  in  the 
autumn. 

The  method  of  sowing  will  depend  upon  such 
conditions  as  the  nature  of  the  climate,  the  strength 
of  the  soil,  its  cleanness  or  the  opposite,  whether  the 
seed  is  sown  alone  or  along  with  another  crop,  and 
on  the  nature  of  the  machinery  at  hand  for  sowing 
it.  The  more  moist  the  climate,  the  stronger  the 
soil  and  the  cleaner  the  land,  the  less  the 
hazard  in  broadcasting  the  seed.  The  drier  the 
climate,  the  poorer  the  soil,  and  the  more  foul  the 
land,  the  greater  the  necessity  for  sowing  in  drills 
that  cultivation  may  be  given.  When  cleaning  the 
land  is  one  of  the  objects  sought  in  sowing  rape,  it 
should  always  be  sown  in  drills.  If  sown  with 
another  crop  it  must  usually  be  broadcasted.  The 
broadcasting  is  commonly  done  by  hand,  or  by  using 
some  form  of  hand  seeder,  but  when  the  seed  is  put 
in  rows  and  sown  on  large  areas,  it  is  put  into  the 
soil  with  the  grain  drill,  or  with  a  two-row 
turnip  drill. 

The  amount  of  seed  required  will  also  vary  with 
the  conditions.  When  rape  is  broadcasted  and 
where  it  is  the  sole  crop  grown  upon  the  land,  from 
three  to  five  pounds  of  seed  are  required  per  acre. 
If  drilled  in  rows,  from  one  to  two  pounds  are  used. 
The  stronger  the  soil  and  the  more  favorable  the 


RAPE    AND    CABBAGE.  155 

conditions  for  growth,  the  less  the  quantity  of  the 
seed  required.  When  the  seed  is  broadcasted,  it  is 
commonly  covered  with  one  stroke  of  the  harrow, 
and  may  or  may  not  be  rolled  subsequently  with 
advantage,  according  to  conditions.  If  drilled  in, 
much  benefit  will  result  from  following  the  seeder 
with  the  roller,  unless  where  the  soils  are  so  light 
as  to  carry  with  the  wind.  In  moist  climates  it  will 
be  advantageous  to  sow  in  raised  drills,  otherwise 
the  rows  should  be  on  the  level. 

Rape  may  be  sown  with  corn-to  provide  pas- 
ture, as  described  in  Chapter  II.  It  may  also  be 
sown  in  the  same  just  before  the  last  cultivation 
given  to  the  corn,  when  the  corn  is  "laid  by"  for  the 
season.  When  thus  sown,  an  average  of  three 
pounds  of  seed  may  be  used  per  acre.  It  can  be 
most  easily  sown  from  the  saddle.  The  seed  is  car- 
ried in  a  sowing  box  in  front  of  the  rider  and  is  held 
in  place  by  shoulder  straps.  The  cultivation  that 
follows  should  be  light.  After  the  corn  crop  has 
been  removed,  the  rape  is  pastured.  The  value  of 
the  pasture  thus  furnished  will  depend  upon  the 
character  of  the  soil  and  season,  and  on  the  lack  of 
denseness  in  the  shade  furnished  by  the  corn.  When 
the  late  summer  and  autumn  weather  are  both  dry, 
and  when  at  the  same  time  the  shade  of  the  corn  is 
dense,  but  little  pasture  will  be  provided.  Under  the 
opposite  conditions,  however,  and  where  the  winter 
closes  in  tardily,  much  pasture  may  be  thus  grown. 

Rape  may  also  be  grown  along  with  sorghum, 
as  described  in  Chapter  III.  And  in  many  instances 
it  may  be  sown  with  much  advantage  along  with 
all  the  common  cereals,  as  wheat,  oats,  barley  and 
rye,  whether  these  are  grown  singly  or  in  con  June- 


156  FORAGE    CROPS. 

tion,  for  the  grain  or  to  produce  soiling  food.  When 
thus  sown,  from  one  to  two  pounds  of  seed  per  acre 
will  suffice.  There  is  not  so  much  hazard  in  sowing 
the  lesser  quantity  named,  since  in  a  very  dry  season 
no  return  may  be  realized.  The  largest  return  in 
pasture  is  likely  to  be  obtained  from  sowing  the  rape 
seed  along  with  barley,  and  the  smallest  from  sow- 
ing it  with  oats,  because  of  the  less  dense  shade  fur- 
nished by  the  former,  and  the  more  dense  shade 
furnished  by  the  latter.  With  winter  wheat  or  win- 
ter rye,  the  seed  may  be  sown  in  spring,  as  soon  as 
the  ground  is  dry  enough  to  sustain  a  span  of  horses 
without  taking  injury  from  their  treading  upon  it. 
It  should  then  be  covered  with  the  harrow.  With 
the  other  crops  named  it  may  be  mixed  with  the 
grain  at  short  intervals  while  it  is  being  sown.  This 
method  of  sowing  the  rape  seed  is  best  suited  to  the 
loam  soils  of  the  prairie.  On  the  average  soils  of 
the  northeastern  states  and  of  the  eastern  half  of 
the  Dominion  of  Canada,  it  would  bury  the  rape 
seed  too  deeply. 

A  second  and  probably  a  better  method  of  sow- 
ing the  rape  seed  with  these  crops  would  be  to  put 
it  into  the  seed  box  of  the  grass-seed-sowing  attach- 
ment of  a  grain  drill,  and  to  have  it  fall  in  front  of 
the  tubes  which  sow  the  grain.  On  many  soils  this 
would  furnish  a  sufficient  covering  for  the  seed,  but 
not  on  all.  The  same  amount  of  covering  would 
also  be  secured  by  sowing  the  seed  by  hand,  or  with 
a  hand  sower  before  the  drilling  in  of  the  grain. 
Where  more  covering  is  desired  the  harrow  will 
furnish  it. 

When  the  rape  seed  is  sown  thus  early,  there  is 
some  danger  in  moist  seasons,  and  especially  with  a 


RAPE    AND     CABBAGE.  157 

barley  crop,  that  the  rape  will  grow  so  vigorously  in 
the  barley  as  to  interfere  with  the  harvesting  of  the 
same.  This  seldom  happens  with  any  of  the  other 
kinds  of  grain,  and  it  does  not  happen  very  often 
with  the  barley  crop.  But  it  may  be  prevented  by 
sowing  the  rape  seed  one  or  two  weeks  after  the  bar- 
ley is  sown.  The  objection  to  sowing  it  thus  arises 
from  the  fact  that  it  is  likely  to  go  unharrowed.  If, 
however,  the  rape  seed  is  sown  just  when  the  first 
blades  of  barley  begin  to  appear,  a  light  harrow  with 
the  teeth  slanting  backward  may  be  used  (but  not 
always),  with  decided  advantage  to  the  rape  and  also 
to  the  barley. 

In  an  average  season  and  on  good  soils,  no 
easier  method  of  sowing  rape  for  pasture  can  be 
adopted.  But  there  is  not  the  same  certainty  that 
pasture  will  be  obtained  as  when  the  rape  is  the  sole 
crop  grown  on  the  land.  Sometimes  an  excellent 
crop  of  fall  pasture  will  result  and  at  other  times 
there  will  be  little  or  none.  It  would  not  be  wise 
to  sow  rape  thus  on  hard  or  infertile  land. 

Cultivation. — "When  rape  is  sown  broadcast,  no 
cultivation  other  than  harrowing  can  be  given  to  it. 
It  is  a  hardy  plant,  and  if  sown  thickly  enough  to 
allow  for  a  small  proportion  of  the  plants  being  torn 
out,  it  may  be  harrowed  under  some  conditions  with 
positive  advantage.  But  it  is  not  usual  to  harrow 
rape  that  has  been  broadcasted. 

If  rape  is  sown  in  drills,  the  cultivation  should 
begin  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  easily  traced  in  the 
line  of  the  row.  The  cultivator  should  run  near  the 
plants,  especially  at  first,  but  not  so  as  to  bury 
any  considerable  number  of  them.  Shallow  but 
thorough  cultivation  should  follow  at  intervals,  until 


158  FORAGE    CROPS. 

the  leaves  are  not  far  distant  as  they  reach  out 
toward  the  center  of  the  space  between  the  rows. 

It  is  not  common  to  thin  the  rape,  because  of 
the  amount  of  labor  involved,  although  larger  crops 
would  result  if  it  were  thinned.  Unless  the  land  is 
quite  foul  with  weeds  that  grow  rapidly,  the  rape 
will  generally  choke  the  weeds  in  the  line  of 
the  row.  But  large  weeds  should  be  struck  out 
with  the  hoe  or  topped  back  rather  than  have  them 
go  to  seed. 

Pasturing. — Rape  may  be  pastured  off  at  vari- 
ous stages  of  development,  according  to  the  object 
sought.  When  eaten  down  before  it  has  made  a 
maximum  growth  it  will  grow  up  again  with  more 
or  less  vigor.  The  strength  of  the  second  growth 
will  be  proportionate  to  the  character  of  the  soil  as 
to  texture  and  richness,  to  the  character  of  the  sea- 
son as  to  moisture  or  the  opposite,  and  to  the  nature 
of  the  pasturing.  The  richer  and  moister  the  soil, 
the  more  moist  the  weather,  and  the  earlier  and  less 
close  the  depasturing,  the  stronger  will  be  the  second 
growth  of  the  rape.  But  depasturing  should  not 
commence  in  any  event  until  the  rape  has  become 
well  established  in  the  soil,  that  is  to  say,  until  it  has 
made  a  growth  of  several  inches.  And  in  pasturing 
off  rape  with  a  view  to  getting  a  second  or  a  third 
growth,  the  animals  which  feed  upon  it  are  very 
prone  to  crop  it  off  so  closely  that  the  capacity  of  the 
plant  to  grow  again  is  weakened.  This  is  particu- 
larly true  of  sheep.  Experiment  has  not  told  us 
whether  more  food  will  be  obtained  from  allowing 
the  rape  to  approach  the  maximum  of  development 
before  it  is  eaten  down  or  from  pasturing  it  off  at 
two  or  three  successive  intervals.  But  in  the  judg- 


RAPE    AND     CABBAGE.  1 59 

ment  of  the  author  the  first  system  will  furnish  con- 
siderably more  food  than  the  second. 

Rape  may  be  pastured  off  with  horses,  cattle, 
sheep,  swine  and  fowls.  Horses  and  cattle  waste 
more  through  treading  than  the  other  classes  of  live 
stock  named.  Cows  in  milk  should  not  usually  be 
allowed  to  pasture  on  rape  lest  a  taint  be  given  to  the 
milk,  but  it  may  be  cut  and  fed  to  them  after  each 
period  of  milking.  Neither  Battle  nor  sheep  should 
be  turned  in  upon  rape  when  hungry,  lest  they  eat 
too  much  of  it  and  so  induce  bloating,  which,  in  a 
very  short  time,  may  prove  fatal.  And  when  the 
rape  is  wet  from  rain  or  dew,  the  tendency  in  the 
rape  to  produce  bloating  is  increased.  And  in  cli- 
mates where  moisture  abounds,  the  danger  from 
bloat  is  greater  than  when  moisture  is  not  plentiful. 
The  author  has  observed  that  in  the  country  drained 
by  the  Mississippi  and  its  tributaries,  the  danger 
from  bloating  in  animals  pasturing  on  rape  is  less 
than  from  pasturing  them  on  the  same  in  New  Eng- 
land, eastern  Canada  and  the  further  Pacific  slope 
north  of  California. 

Cattle  and  sheep  may  be  accustomed  to  rape  by 
turning  them  into  a  field  of  the  same  after  they  have 
eaten  freely  of  some  other  food  and  then  leaving 
them  in  the  rape  pasture.  But  the  danger  will  be 
still  further  decreased  by  allowing  them  to  remain 
en  the  rape  only  for  a  short  time  the  first  day,  and 
hy  gradually  increasing  the  time  during  each  suc- 
ceeding day.  In  less  time  than  a  week  they  may  be 
allowed  to  remain  on  the  rape,  having  access  at  will 
at  the  same  time  to  an  adjoining  grass  pasture,  for 
reasons  given  further  on.  In  thus  accustoming  a 
large  flock  of  sheep  to  a  rape  pasture,  the  aid  of  a 


l6o  FORAGE    CROPS. 

saddle  horse  will  be  found  serviceable,  owing  to  the 
difficulty  of  walking  through  a  heavy  crop  of  rape 
on  foot. 

When  animals  that  have  never  been  pastured 
upon  rape  are  first  turned  in  upon  it,  they  may  not 
take  kindly  to  it,  not  having  acquired  a  taste  for  the 
rape,  but  if  confined  to  it  they  will  soon  eat  it  raven- 
ously. So  fond  do  they  become  of  it  that  ere  long 
when  feeding  upon  a  mixed  pasture  in  which  rape  is 
one  of  the  factors,  they  will  first  search  out  the  rape 
and  consume  it  in  preference  to  almost  all  other  kinds 
of  plants.  And  when  once  they  have  acquired  a 
taste  for  rape  they  never  tire  of  it. 

If  live  stock  are  pasturing  on  rape  it  is  generally 
considered  beneficial  to  the  animals  to  give  them 
access  also  to  a  grass  pasture.  And  if  the  grass  in 
the  latter  has  lost  some  of  its  succulence  through  age, 
the  benefit  will  be  increased.  The  grass  lessens  the 
tendency  to  "scours"  in  the  animals,  that  is  to  say, 
it  lessens  the  tendency  to  a  too  lax  condition  of  the 
digestion.  Grain,  as  oats,  for  instance,  fed  once 
a  day  at  the  rate  of,  say,  half  a  pound  per  head  for 
each  animal,  will  have  a  similar  effect  upon  the  diges- 
tion. But  it  is  not  usually  considered  necessary  to 
feed  grain  to  live  stock  that  are  being  pastured  on 
rape,  for  the  sole  object  of  hastening  the  fattening 
process,  as  it  is  doubtful  if  any  kind  of  grain  can 
be  added  to  rape  pasture  in  a  mature  stage  of  growth 
that  will  cause  the  sheep  to  lay  on  fat  much  more 
quickly  than  if  they  are  pastured  on  rape  alone. 
Cattle  and  sheep  should  always  have  free  access  to 
salt  when  pasturing  upon  rape,  and  when  nec- 
essary they  should  also  be  supplied  daily  with 
water.  But  when  sheep  are  pasturing  upon  sue- 


RAPE    AND    CABBAGE.  l6l 

culent  rape  in  the  autumn,  they  will  drink  little  or 
no  water. 

If  sheep  are  turned  in  upon  a  rape  pasture  that 
is  neither  very  tall  nor  very  dense,  they  will  first  con- 
sume the  leaves  because  of  their  greater  succulence. 
They  will  finally  consume  all  the  stems,  eating  them 
off  close  to  the  ground.  But  if  the  rape  should  be 
tall  and  thick  they  will  feed  it  off  clean,  or  virtually 
so,  as  they  pasture.  The  stems  are  considered  even 
better  for  laying  on  fat  than  the  leaves.  When  the 
leaves,  but  not  the  stems,  of  a  rape  pasture  have  been 
eaten  by  sheep,  if  cattle  are  then  turned  into  the  same 
to  complete  the  depasturing,  there  will  be  much  less 
loss  of  rape  by  trampling  than  if  the  cattle  had  been 
turned  in  at  an  earlier  stage  of  the  depasturing. 

On  soils  that  do  not  poach,  that  is  to  say,  on 
soils  in  which  the  hoofs  of  the  sheep  do  not  sink 
beneath  the  surface,  sheep  may  be  pastured  upon 
rape  with  profit  until  the  closing  in  of  winter.  And 
it  may  yet  turn  out  that  in  warm  latitudes  they  can 
be  pastured  on  rape  through  the  whole  of  the  winter. 
Oftentimes  they  may  be  pastured  on  it  with  profit 
after  the  first  snows  have  fallen.  But  in  climates 
with  cold  winters,  rape  should  be  eaten  off  before 
the  arrival  of  severe  frosts.  After  the  rape  has 
been  frozen  until  the  stems  become  so  crisp  that  they 
are  easily  broken  asunder,  the  value  of  the  rape  pas- 
ture is  much  impaired.  And  when  the  early  frosts 
cover  the  rape  with  rime,  the  sheep  should  not  be 
allowed  upon  the  rape  until  after  they  have  partaken 
of  a  feed  of  oats  or  other  suitable  grain.  In  the 
absence  of  such  food  they  should  not  be  given  access 
to  the  rape  until  the  frost  has  lifted,  or  serious  diges- 
tive troubles  may  arise, 
ii 


1 62  FORAGE    CROPS. 

Observations. — i.  The  rape  crop  is  sometimes 
said  to  be  severe  on  land,  that  is  to  say,  that  it  will 
soon  deplete  the  soil  of  its  fertility.  That  will 
depend  on  the  use  to  which  the  rape  is  put.  If  pas- 
tured off  by  live  stock,  as  sheep,  for  instance,  that 
remain  upon  the  field  while  they  are  depasturing  the 
crop,  it  is  difficult  to  see  how  it  can  deplete  the  soil 
of  its  fertility,  since  what  has  been  produced  is  put 
back  upon  the  soil. 

2.  It  should  be  remembered  that  clay  lands  are 
unsuitable  for  being  pastured  in  moist  weather,  even 
by  sheep,  when  they  are  carrying  a  crop  of  rape.     If 
they  are  thus  pastured  off  when  in  the  condition 
stated,  the  land  will  be  so  impacted  as  to  render  sub- 
sequent cultivation  both  difficult  and  costly. 

3.  The  number  of  sheep  that  one  acre  will  sus- 
tain, and  the  period  through  which  it  wrill  sustain 
them,  will,  of  course,  depend  upon  the  character  of 
the  growth  in  the  rape.     But  an  average  crop  will 
sustain  from  ten  to  fifteen  animals  per  acre  for  sixty 
days.     At  the  end  of  the  sixty  days  they  should  all 
be  in  condition  to  "take  the  market,"  even  though 
lean  in  form  when  put  upon  the  rape. 

4.  When  sheep  eat  so  excessively  of  rape  or 
of  any  other  fodder  plant  as  to  induce  bloating, 
relief  must  be  at  once  given  or  the  animals  will 
almost  certainly  die.     And  they  will  die  with  great 
suddenness.        When  they  are  being  pastured  on 
rape  in  large  numbers,  therefore,  a  trocar  should 
always  be  on  hand.     The  moment  that  a  case  of 
bloat  is  detected,  the  paunch  should  be  tapped  to 
allow  the  gas  to  escape.     This  is  done  by  striking 
the  trocar  into  the  stomach  on  the  left  side  and  some- 
what  low    down    in    the   triangular    fleshly   space 


RAPE    AND    CABBAGE.  163 

between  the  last  rib  and  the  hip.  Sheep  die  so 
quickly  from  bloat  that  medicine  given  is  seldom  of 
much  value.  But  if  animals  dying  or  just  dead  from 
bloat  are  at  once  bled,  the  meat  is  not  injured  as  food. 

CABBAGE. 

Cabbage  (Brassica  oleracea)  has  been  grown  to 
some  extent  as  a  soiling  food  for  sheep,  both  in 
Europe  and  America,  but  so  far  as  known  to  the 
author  it  has  not  been  grown  to  provide  pasture 
for  sheep  elsewhere  than  at  the  Minnesota  Univer- 
sity experiment  farm.  The  experiments  there  con- 
ducted were  carried  on  under  the  direction  of  the 
author,  and  they  have  been  quite  successful,  in  fact, 
encouragingly  so.  No  plant  grown  at  the  said  farm 
has  furnished  more  valuable  food  for  sheep  to  the 
acre.  The  field  thus  opened  for  growing  this  plant 
will  prove  surely  a  very  wide  one. 

Although  very  similar  to  rape  in  its  food  con- 
stituents, a  crop  of  cabbage,  when  well  matured,  will 
sustain  less  injury  from  frost,  and  consequently  will 
provide  pasture  later  in  the  season.  A  second  advan- 
tage that  cabbage  has  over  rape  as  a  pasture  plant, 
arises  from  the  fact  that  there  is  even  less  hazard  in 
growing  the  former.  It  cannot  be  said  that  the  cab- 
bage has  more  of  inherent  vigor  than  rape,  but  the 
mode  of  cultivation  which  it  requires  is  almost  cer- 
tain to  insure  a  crop  even  in  the  driest  seasons. 
There  is  certainly  a  wide  future  before  this  plant  in 
providing  pasture  for  sheep. 

Distribution. — Cabbage,  like  rape,  can  be  suc- 
cessfully grown  in  nearly  all  sections  of  the  United 
States  and  Canada.  But,  like  rape  and  rutabagas, 


164  FORAGE    CROPS. 

it  can  be  grown  more  successfully  in  cool  and 
moist  latitudes  than  in  those  that  are  warm  and  dry. 
But  cabbages  can  be  successfully  grown  in  warmer 
latitudes  than  either  of  these  crops.  Wherever  they 
can  be  successfully  grown  for  table  use  without  too 
great  an  expenditure  of  labor,  they  can  also  be  suc- 
cessfully grown  to  provide  sheep  pasture. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Cabbages  may  be  suc- 
cessfully grown  for  forage  anywhere  in  the  rotation, 
but  since  they  should  receive  cultivation  while  they 
are  growing,  they  should  preferably  be  put  on 
ground  that  requires  to  be  cleaned,  and  should  ordi- 
narily be  followed  by  a  crop  of  grain  sown  with 
grass  seeds. 

Soil. — The  best  soils  for  growing  rape  are  also 
the  best  for  growing  cabbage,  and  these  have  been 
described  previously  when  treating  of  rape.  But  it  is 
even  more  important  that  the  land  shall  be  rich  when 
growing  a  crop  of  cabbage  on  it  than  when  growing 
a  crop  of  rape.  Cabbage  can  also  be  successfully 
grown  on  land  that  has  too  much  clay  in  it  to  grow 
rape  well.  It  would  not  be  wise,  nevertheless,  to 
grow  cabbage  for  forage  on  such  land,  as  pasturing 
off  the  crop  late  in  autumn  would  tend  very  much 
to  impact  the  soil. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — In  preparing  the  soil  for 
cabbage,  the  ground  should,  as  a  rule,  be  plowed 
deeply  the  autumn  previous.  But  there  may  be 
localities,  as  those  with  winters  open  and  rainy, 
where  it  would  be  better  not  to  plow  in  the  autumn. 
If  not  rich  naturally,  it  should  be  made  so  by  turn- 
ing under  a  free  application  of  farmyard  manure, 
in  a  somewhat  advanced  stage  of  decay.  Where  the 
soils  are  leechy,  the  manure  should  be  spread  over 


RAPE    AND    CABBAGE.  165 

the  surface  after  the  land  has  been  plowed.  Usually 
it  is  not  necessary  to  plow  the  land  again  in  the 
spring,  but  it  ought  to  be  deeply  stirred  with  the  cul- 
tivator as  early  as  the  work  can  be  done,  and  a  suc- 
cession of  harrowings  may  also  be  in  order.  The 
number  of  these  will  be  somewhat  dependent  on  the 
time  at  which  the  seed  is  sown.  The  earlier  the  seed 
is  sown  the  less  the  opportunity  that  will  be  given 
for  thus  sprouting  the  weeds  on  and  near  the  surface. 

Sowing. — The  time  for  sowing  the  seed  will 
depend,  first,  on  the  character  of  the  climate ;  second, 
on  the  variety  of  the  cabbage ;  and,  third,  upon  the 
season  when  the  crop  is  to  be  depastured.  Sowing 
should  be  deferred  until  danger  from  frost  is  past. 
If  early  pasture  is  wanted,  then  the  seed  of  some 
early  or  semi-early  variety  should  be  sown,  and  as 
early  as  the  sowing  may  be  safely  done,  otherwise 
some  late  variety  should  be  chosen  and  the  sowing 
deferred  until  the  soil  has  been  well  cleaned  and 
mellowed.  About  the  corn  planting  season  will  be 
found  a  very  suitable  time  for  planting  cabbage  seed 
of  the  late  varieties,  and  those  varieties  should  be 
chosen  that  have  been  found  well  adapted  to  the 
locality. 

\Yhen  a  limited  area  is  to  be  sown,  after  the 
ground  has  been  thoroughly  pulverized  it  should 
then  be  rolled  and  the  rows  marked  off  with  some 
form  of  hand  marker.  They  should  vary  in  dis- 
tance from  thirty  to  thirty-six  inches,  according  to 
the  variety  of  the  cabbage  and  strength  of  the  soil. 
The  seed  may  then  be  sown  with  a  hand  machine. 
The  roller  should  again  be  passed  over  the  soil  where 
the  wind  is  not  liable  to  blow  it  away.  When  a 
large  area  is  to  be  sown  the  drills  may  be  slightly 


l66  FORAGE    CROPS. 

raised  by  using  a  double  mold-board  plow  and 
marker,  and  the  seed  sown  with  a  machine  drawn 
by  a  horse,  and  which  sows,  covers  and  rolls  two 
rows  at  a  time.  Or  it  may  be  sown  on  the  level, 
after  the  ground  has  been  rolled,  with  a  grain  drill 
capable  of  sowing  properly  so  small  a  seed.  There 
are  grain  drills  that  will  do  such  work  nicely.  When 
they  are  driven  with  sufficient  care  the  rows  will  be 
straight  enough  to  admit  of  easy  cultivation.  Of 
course,  the  openings  for  seed  in  the  drill  must  all  be 
closed,  except  those  which  are  to  be  used  in  sowing 
the  cabbage  seed. 

The  amount  of  seed  required  will  vary  with 
the  variety  of  the  cabbage,  with  the  strength  of  the 
soil,  and  with  its  condition  as  to  moisture.  But,  as 
a  rule,  less  than  one  pound  per  acre  should  not  be 
sown  and  more  than  two  pounds  will  seldom 
be  needed. 

It  will  generally  be  found  cheaper  to  sow  the 
plants  thus  than  to  grow  them  elsewhere  and  then 
transplant  them  into  the  rows.  When  they  grow 
too  thickly  they  are  quite  as  easily  thinned  as  tur- 
nips or  rutabagas.  The  work  of  thinning  can  be 
done  even  more  quickly  in  the  case  of  cabbage,  as 
they  are  to  be  thinned  to  a  greater  distance.  In 
some  sections  it  would  scarcely  be  possible  to  grow 
cabbage  plants  after  this  fashion,  because  of  the 
ravages  of  insects  and  because  of  the  slow  growth 
that  they  would  make  when  young  on  certain  soils. 
Where  they  cannot  be  grown  thus,  it  is  at  least 
questionable  whether  the  attempt  should  be  made 
to  grow  cabbage  as  forage. 

Cultivation. — As  soon  as  the  cabbage  can  be 
distinctly  traced  in  the  line  of  the  row,  the  cultiva- 


RAPE    AND    CABBAGE. 


i67 


= 


if 


1 68  FORAGE    CROPS. 

tion  should  begin.  It  should  come  as  near  to  the 
young  plants  as  possible  without  covering  them. 
And  it  should  be  frequently  given  and  continued 
until  it  cannot  longer  be  done  lest  the  leaves  of  the 
cabbage  be  broken.  The  thinning  of  the  plants 
should  begin  when  they  are  from  three  to  four  inches 
high.  The  work  is  nearly  all  done  with  the  hoe. 
The  individual  doing  it  stands  squarely  in  front  of 
the  row,  that  is  to  say,  he  faces  it,  not  standing  too 
near,  and  strikes  out  the  plants  which  intervene 
between  those  which  are  to  be  left.  Of  course,  the 
strong  plants  are  to  be  left,  and  to  secure  such  an 
end  it  may  be  necessary  sometimes  to  vary  a  little 
in  the  distance  to  which  the  plants  are  to  be  thinned. 
The  proper  distance  between  the  plants  in  the  line 
of  the  row  will  vary  with  the  conditions,  but  the  aim 
should  be  to  secure  large  heads  in  the  cabbage,  hence 
they  should  be  thinned  accordingly.  From  twenty 
to  thirty  inches  between  the  plants  in  the  line  of  the 
row  may  be  named  as  the  two  extremes  of  close  and 
wide  thinning,  respectively. 

Pasturing. — Cabbage  are  best  adapted  to  pro- 
vide pastures  for  sheep.  Although  they  are  especially 
adapted  to  furnishing  autumn  pasture,  the  season  of 
pasturing  should  not  be  too  long  deferred  in  localities 
with  cold  winter  climates,  as,  if  the  crop  is  not  all 
eaten  before  winter  closes  in,  the  part  uneaten  will 
be  lost.  In  sections  with  mild  winter  climates,  the 
pasturing  may  go  on  far  into  the  winter  season. 
Figure  22  represents  sheep  pasturing  on  cabbage. 

As  the  sheep  are  turned  into  a  cabbage  pasture, 
the  same  care  should  be  exercised  as  with  rape,  that 
the  change  of  diet  shall  not  be  too  suddenly  made. 
When  used  to  the  new  diet,  the  sheep  may  be  left 


RAPE    AND    CABBAGE.  169 

on  the  cabbage  all  the  time,  or  they  may  also  be  given 
access  to  a  grass  pasture,  as  may  be  convenient.  If 
given  time  enough,  the  sheep  will  eat  the  entire  crop 
save  the  stalks. 

Observations. — i.  Cabbage  for  sheep  pasture 
may  be  grown  with  special  reason  where  the  soil  will 
grow  an  abundance  of  rutabaga  tops,  but  will  not 
produce  good  roots,  and  where  severe  early  frosts 
would  injure  rape. 

2.  This  crop  will  produce  a  very  large  amount 
of  pasture  high  in  nutrition. 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

THE  COMMON   CEREALS. 

Wheat,  oats,  rye  and  barley  are  included  in  the 
term,  common  cereals.  In  the  popular  idea,  peas 
also  are  included,  though  not  a  cereal  in  the  strictest 
sense  of  the  term.  With  the  exception  of  rye,  these 
grains  are  seldom  used  singly  in  providing  pasture. 
But  they  are  frequently  grown  icucembination  for 
such  a  use.  When  thus  grown,  it  is  believed  that 
more  pasture  will  be  produced  than  could  be  obtained 
by  growing  any  one  variety  alone.  This  arises 
mainly  from  a  difference  in  the  habit  of  the  growth 
of  the  plants  of  each  variety,  first,  as  to  quickness 
of  growth,  and,  second,  as  to  stooling  properties. 
For  instance,  if  oats  and  barley  are  sown  in  com- 
bination, the  barley,  because  of  its  more  rapid 
growth,  will  furnish  the  bulk  of  the  pasture  during 
the  earlier  grazing  period,  while  the  oats  will  furnish 
the  bulk  of  the  same  during  the  later  grazing 
period.  And  the  oats  will  stool  more  than  the 
barley.  Good  grazing  may  be  furnished,  there- 
fore, for  a  longer  period  by  growing  the  two 
in  combination  than  by  growing  either  singly. 
The  variety  thus  afforded  is  also  advantageous,  on 
the  principle  that  variety  in  grass  pastures  is 
advantageous. 

Pastures  from  these  grains  will  not  be  equally 
serviceable  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States.  They 
will  be  serviceable,  first,  in  proportion  as  grasses 

170 


THE    COMMON    CEREALS. 

and  clovers  grow  shyly  or  not  at  all  in  any  locality ; 
second,  in  proportion  to  the  success  which  attends 
the  growing  of  cereals  for  pasture;  and.  third,  in 
proportion  to  the  lack  of  success  which  attends  the 
growing  of  plants  of  the  sorghum  family  for  pas- 
ture. While  pastures  of  more  or  less  value  may  be 
obtained  from  cereals  in  all  parts  of  the  United  States 
in  which  cereals  can  be  grown  with  success,  it  will 
follow,  therefore,  that  they  will  render  the  best  serv- 
ice in  states  that  lie  in  the  upper  half  of  the  Missis- 
sippi basin,  and  in  the  arable  portions  of  Canada 
which  drain  into  Hudson  Bay.  Cereal  pastures 
will  be  less  valuable  relatively  in  the  eastern,  more 
especially  the  New  England,  states,  and  in  the  prov- 
inces of  Canada  which  extend  from  Lake  Huron  to 
the  Atlantic.  In  these  areas  the  rainfall  is  usually 
abundant  and  well  distributed.  The  soils  are  also 
of  heavier  texture  than  in  the  west,  and  the  protect- 
ing snows  are  more  abundant  in  winter,  hence  the 
conditions  are  relatively  more  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  grass  pastures  than  in  the  prairie  states 
and  provinces.  In  the  former,  the  cereals  not  only 
grow  more  slowly,  but  more  difficulty  is  experienced 
in  grazing  them  off,  from  liability  to  impaction  of 
the  soil  through  the  treading  of  the  stock.  Over  all 
the  southern  half  of  the  United  States  the  conditions 
are  more  favorable,  relatively,  to  growing  pasture 
from  the  saccharine  and  non-saccharine  members  of 
the  sorghum  genus. 

Pastures  from  cereals  are  usually  obtained,  first, 
by  sowing  winter  rye;  and,  second,  by  sowing  the 
"small"  grains,  as  rye,  wheat,  oats  and  barley,  in 
various  combinations.  Under  some  conditions, 
cereals  may  also  be  pastured,  in  some  instances, 


FORAGE    CROPS. 

for  a  time  and  with  profit,  by  sheep,  even  when 
they  are  to  be  harvested  for  the  grain  which 
they  produce. 

WINTER  RYE. 

Of  the  cereals,  rye  (Secale  cereale)  is  beyond 
all  question  the  most  suitable  for  forage  uses.  It  is 
an  annual,  and,  therefore,  it  is  usually  necessary  to 
sow  it  every  year.  But  instances  are  on  record  in 
which  it  has  been  pastured  for  a  period  considerably 
longer  than  a  year,  by  keeping  it  eaten  off  closely. 
The  various  kinds  of  rye  may  be  divided  into  two 
classes,  one  of  which  is  known  as  winter  rye  and  the 
other  as  spring  or  summer  rye.  The  winter  varie- 
ties are  much  more  valuable  than  the  spring  varieties 
in  providing  pasture,  since  the  former  are  frequently 
grazed  both  autumn  and  spring,  whereas  the  latter 
furnish  pasture  for  a  short  season  only  in  the  early 
part  of  summer.  The  great  value  of  winter  rye  as 
a  forage  plant  is  not  as  generally  understood  as  it 
ought  to  be,  or  much  more  of  it  would  be  sown  to 
grow  forage. 

Distribution. — Rye  can  be  grown  for  pasture  in 
all,  or  nearly  all,  the  tillable  portions  of  the  United 
States.  Where  lands  are  irrigated,  it  may  not 
always  be  profitable  to  grow  rye  for  pasture,  but,  of 
course,  on  these  it  may  be  thus  grown,  and  in  great 
perfection.  As  a  forage  crop  it  will  probably  be 
more  valuable  relatively  in  those  areas  where  grasses 
and  sorghums  do  not  grow  at  their  best.  Hence,  it 
may  be  made  to  render  peculiar  service  in  providing 
forage  in  all  parts  of  the  upper  Mississippi  basin, 
and  in  the  regions  of  Canada  which  drain  into  Hud- 
son Bay.  In  some  portions,  however,  of  the 


THE    COMMON    CEREALS.  173 

Hudson  Bay  basin,  the  low  temperatures  of  winter 
will  preclude  the  possibility  of  growing  winter  rye. 
Although  extremely  hardy,  even  more  so  than  any 
of  the  clovers,  there  are  low  temperatures  which  it 
cannot  survive.  Winter  rye  also  renders  yeoman 
service  in  furnishing  forage  in  latitudes  with  mild 
temperatures,  and  more  especially  when  the  air  in 
these  is  moist  and  the  rainfall  sufficient.  In  such 
areas  the  season  for  pasturing  the  rye  is  more  con- 
tinuous and  prolonged  than  it  can  possibly  be  where 
the  winters  are  long  and  cold. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Rye  for  pasture  may  be 
placed  anywhere  in  the  rotation.  This  is  more  par- 
ticularly true  of  winter  rye.  But  since  it  becomes 
in  a  sense  a  "cleaning"  crop  when  another  crop 
immediately  follows  the  depasturing,  it  will  be 
found  good  practice  to  sow  it  on  land  that  requires 
cleaning.  As  the  period  for  pasturing  in  the  spring 
is  of  but  short  duration,  there  is  ample  time  to 
follow  rye  pasture  with  corn,  potatoes,  sorghum 
in  any  of  its  varieties,  field  roots,  millet,  or  rape. 
Such  a  succession  cannot  but  prove  destructive 
to  weeds,  and  the  only  sections  where  it  cannot 
be  adopted  successfully  are  those  in  which  the  rain- 
fall is  so  meager  as  to  prohibit  the  growing  of 
these  crops  the  same  season,  after  the  rye  has 
been  eaten  off. 

Soil. — Winter  rye  may  be  successfully  grown 
for  pasture  on  any  soil  possessed  of  the  requisite 
fertility  and  moisture.  It  has  much  power  to  gather 
food  in  the  soil,  hence,  even  on  poor  soils,  it  will 
make  a  fair  growth  when  supplied  with  the  needed 
moisture.  On  the  other  hand,  the  vigor  of  the 
growth  will  be  proportionate  to  the  richness  of  the 


174  FORAGE    CROPS. 

land,  and  to  the  ease  with  which  the  rootlets  of  the 
rye  can  gather  food  from  it.  Rye  has  peculiar 
adaptation  for  sandy  land,  hence  on  such  land  it 
may  be  grown  for  forage  with  a  fair  measure  of 
success,  although  too  poor  to  grow  other  cereals  in 
good  form.  On  stiff  clay  soils,  the  growth  is  slow. 
A  further  objection  to  growing  rye  on  such  soils  for 
pasture  arises  from  the  fact  that  grazing  it  off  in 
wet  weather  so  tends  to  impact  the  land  as  to  render 
subsequent  cultivation  difficult  and  more  or  less 
unprofitable. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — When  the  moisture  is 
ample,  the  preparation  of  the  soil  for  winter  rye  is  a 
simple  process.  The  land  only  needs  to  be  plowed 
and  pulverized  so.  as  to  produce  a  fine  tilth,  that  is  to 
say,  a  fine  condition  of  pulverization  on  the  surface 
and  for  some  distance  below  it.  Under  these  condi- 
tions, the  plowing  of  the  land  may  be  deferred  until 
the  time  approaches  for  sowing  the  rye,  if  it  is  more 
convenient  to  have  it  thus,  but  where  moisture  is 
deficient  it  would  be  necessary  to  plow  the  land 
some  time  previously.  When  thus  plowed,  it  should 
be  at  once  rolled  with  a  heavy  roller  or  packed  with 
a  subsoil  packer,  as  conditions  might  require.  The 
harrow  should  follow  within  a  few  days,  and  after 
an  interval  one  or  more  subsequent  harrowings  may 
be  necessary.  Ground  moisture  sufficient  to  sprout 
the  rye  can  thus  be  arrested  near  the  surface, 
unless  under  conditions  extremely  adverse.  In  the 
absence  of  enough  moisture  to  sprout  the  rye,  it 
would  be  useless  to  sow  it.  Where  a  crop  of  peas 
has  just  been  removed  from  clean  land,  it  is  usually 
not  necessary  to  plow  before  sowing  the  rye. 
Disking  it  once  or  twice  will  be  found  a  suffi- 


THE   COMMON    CEREALS.  175 

cient  preparation  when  followed  by  more  or  less 
harrowing.  The  second  disking  should  be  made  so 
as  to  cross  the  first. 

Sowing. — The  best  time  to  sow  rye  for  pasture 
will  depend  upon  the  amount  of  moisture  in  the  soil, 
the  severity  of  the  winters,  and  the  extent  of  the 
pasturing  that  is  sought.  No  good  can  come  from 
sowing  the  rye  on  a  soil  with  insufficient  moisture 
to  produce  germination.  If  there  should  be  only 
moisture  enough  to  start  germination  and  not 
enough  to  sustain  it,  the  young  plants  must  perish. 
In  some  instances,  therefore,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
defer  sowing  for  several  weeks  after  the  ground  has 
been  made  ready. 

Where  the  winter  climate  is  severe,  the  aim 
should  be  to  sow  the  rye  sufficiently  long  before  the 
advent  of  winter  to  enable  it  to  make  a  good  growth 
in  the  autumn.  When  the  roots  have  a  strong  grip 
on  the  soil,  and  when  the  "top  growth"  made  is 
sufficient  to  act  as  a  mulch,  the  rye  is  enabled,  espe- 
cially in  the  absence  of  snow,  to  endure  the  rigors  of 
an  open  winter  with  much  less  injury  than  if  the 
plants  entered  the  winter  with  but  little  of  develop- 
ment. Later  sown  winter  rye  ordinarily  makes  but 
a  feeble  growth  in  the  early  spring,  even  though  it 
should  not  be  seriously  harmed  by  the  cold  of  winter, 
and  it  is  in  the  early  spring  that  rye  pasture  is  espe- 
cially valuable. 

If  pasturing  the  rye  in  the  autumn  is  an  impor- 
tant consideration,  then,  of  course,  the  rye  must  be 
sown  early,  as  early  as  August  in  the  northern 
states,  somewhat  later  in  the  central,  and  still  later 
in  the  southern.  In  the  northern  states  and  in 
Canada,  the  aim  should  be  to  sow  rye  for  pasture  not 


176  FORAGE    CROPS. 

later  than  the  middle  of  September,  whether  it  is  to 
be  eaten  down  or  not  in  the  autumn.  It  may  survive 
though  not  sown  until  near  the  advent  of  winter,  but 
late  sowing  is  not  likely  to  produce  an  abundance  of 
pasture  in  the  spring,  although  in  some  instances  it 
may  produce  a  good  crop  of  grain. 

Rye  should  be  sown  thickly  when  it  is  to  be 
pastured.  Not  less  than  two  and  one-half  bushels 
of  seed  per  acre  should  be  used,  and  on  some  soils 
three  bushels  will  prove  more  satisfactory.  The  less 
favorable  the  conditions,  the  greater  should  be  the 
amount  of  seed  sown.  It  is  more  satisfactory  to  put 
the  seed  in  with  the  grain  drill  than  by  any  other 
method.  The  grain  drill  buries  the  seed  to  a 
uniform  depth,  hence  all  of  it  is  more  likely 
to  grow.  The  roots  are  nearer  the  sources  of 
moisture,  and  since  they  are  deeper  than  would 
result  from  broadcast  sowing,  the  plants  suffer 
less  injury  from  adverse  winter  weather.  The 
depth  to  plant  the  seed  will  vary  with  the  con- 
ditions, but  ordinarily  from  two  to  three  inches 
will  suffice. 

Cultivation. — Usually  no  further  cultivation  is 
necessary  after  the  rye  has  been  sown,  but  in  some 
instances  it  may  be  harrowed  with  advantage  in  the 
early  spring.  The  stirring  thus  given  to  the  surface 
of  the  ground  tends  to  promote  the  growth  of  the 
rye  and  to  discourage  the  growth  of  weeds.  In  dry 
regions  it  will  also  render  good  service  in  the  extent 
to  which  it  will  prevent  the  escape  of  ground  mois- 
ture. If  grass  seeds  have  been  sown  upon  it,  the 
harrowing  renders  the  "catch"  of  the  seeds  more 
certain.  But  sowing  grass  seeds  on  rye  that  is  to 
be  pastured  is  of  doubtful  advantage,  owing  to  the 


THE    COMMON    CEREALS.  177 

early  period  at  which  the  depasturing  ought  to  begin. 
There  are  some  soils  on  which  sowing  grass  seeds 
may  prove  quite  successful. 

Pasturing. — Rye  pasture  is  excellent  for  all 
kinds  of  live  stock.  It  is  particularly  helpful  in  pro- 
ducing an  abundant  milk  flow,  before  it  reaches  the 
jointing  stage.  Live  stock  may  be  turned  in  upon 
it  in  the  autumn  as  soon  as  it  has  made  a  sufficient 
growth  to  furnish  a  "good  bite/'  and  likewise,  also, 
in  the  spring.  Sheep  may  be  put  upon  it  earlier 
than  cattle,  because  of  their  greater  ability  to  gather 
food  from  short  pastures.  It  should  be  kept  so 
closely  grazed  that  it  will  not  joint.  As  soon  as  it 
joints  to  form  the  head,  its  power  to  produce  much 
pasture,  and  also  good  pasture,  is  gone.  And  when 
not  eaten  until  the  jointing  stage  has  been  reached, 
live  stock  will  not  then  relish  it  because  of  the  woody 
character  which  it  assumes.  It  should  also  be 
remembered  that  when  rye  has  been  pastured  for  a 
considerable  period  in  the  autumn,  it  is  not  likely  to 
produce  so  much  pasture  in  the  spring  as  it  would 
had  it  not  been  so  pastured.  Plants,  like  people, 
exhaust  their  powers  when  they  have  done  a  certain 
amount  of  work. 

More  food  would  be  obtained  by  dividing  the 
rye  into  two  or  more  sections  and  alternating  the 
grazing.  But  this  may  seldom  be  practicable  because 
of  the  labor  and  expense  involved.  When  sheep  are 
being  pastured  on  rye,  if  they  are  given  some,  con- 
centrated food  at  the  same  time,  as,  for  instance,  oil 
cake  or  corn,  both  sheep  and  land  will  be  much 
improved.  When  cows  in  milk  are  being  pastured 
on  rye,  they  should  not  be  allowed  to  graze  upon  it 
more  than  two  or  three  hours  per  day,  and  only  just 

*  12 


1/8  FORAGE    CROPS. 

after  they  have  been  milked,  otherwise  both  milk  and 
butter  will  be  affected  adversely. 

Observations. — i.  Winter  rye  is  not  altogether 
satisfactory  as  a  pasture  plant  when  sown  in  the 
spring.  It  will  make  a  good  and  rapid  growth  for 
a  time,  but  when  the  hot  weather  of  summer  comes, 
it  usually  turns  a  sickly,  rusty  color,  and  in  very  dry 
weather  dies  outright.  This,  at  least,  has  been  the 
author's  experience  in  growing  spring  sown  winter 
rye,  both  in  Ontario  and  Minnesota.  Several  other 
cereal  plants  will  furnish  more  and  better  pasture 
when  sown  in  the  spring. 

2.  Winter    rye    is    sometimes    pastured    with 
swine  from  early  spring  until  the  crop  has  been  har- 
vested by  the  swine.     When  thus  pastured  the  rye 
is  in  excess  of  the  immediate  wants  of  the  swine, 
and  consequently  it  forms  ears  that  mature.  In  many 
instances  it  may  be  well  to  remove  the  swine  for  a 
time  to  prevent  breaking  it  down  unduly  until  the 
grain  is  nearly  matured.  The  grain  is  then  consumed 
by  the  swine.     Much  of  it  will,  of  course,  shell  out 
and  become  more  or  less  imbedded  in  the  ground  by 
the  trampling  of  the  swine.  In  moist  weather,  it  soon 
springs  up  and  in  turn  furnishes  late  summer  pas- 
ture.    If  clover  has  been  sown  on  the  rye  in  the 
early  spring,  the  pasture  will  be  much  improved  in 
consequence,  when  a  good  "catch"  of  the  clover  is 
obtained.     This    method    of    furnishing    food    for 
swine  has  met  with  some  favor  in  Ohio  and  else- 
where, but  it  does  not  seem  to  find  much  favor  as 
yet  with  the  average  farmer. 

3.  When  rye  is  sown  in  the  late  summer  with 
a  view  to  pasturing  it  in  the  autumn  and  also  in  the 
spring,  Dwarf  Essex  rape  seed  may  be  sown  along 


THE    COMMON     CEREALS.  179 

with  the  rye,  and  generally  with  no  little  advantage. 
From  one  to  two  pounds  of  rape  seed  should  be  sown 
per  acre,  and,  in  some  instances,  a  larger  quantity. 
The  seed  may  be  sown,  first,  by  adding  it  to  the  rye 
in  the  drill  grain  box  at  short  intervals  and  mixing 
it  with  the  rye  while  the  latter  is  being  sown ;  second, 
by  the  grass-seed-sowing  attachment  to  the  grain 
drill,  when  it  has  one — the  rape  seed  should  fall 
before  rather  than  after  the  grain  tubes,  that  a  cov- 
ering may  thus  be  provided  for  the  seed;  third,  by 
some  other  form  of  seeder,  or  by  hand,  after  the  rye 
has  been  sown.  One  stroke  of  the  harrow  should 
then  be  given  to  cover  the  rape  seed.  Rape  sown 
with  rye  does  not  grow  so  vigorously  as  when  it  is 
the  sole  occupant  of  the  ground,  but  if  sown  five  or 
six  weeks  before  the  pasturing  begins  it  will  usually 
add  much  to  the  value  of  a  rye  pasture,  and  more 
especially  when  it  is  to  be  eaten  down  by  sheep. 
But  the  rape  will  not  live  through  the  winter,  as  the 
rye  does,  except  in  mild  latitudes. 

4.  The  few  trials  that  have  been  made  in  grow- 
ing rye  and  crimson  clover  together  have  not  proved 
altogether  satisfactory.     Although  these  plants  are 
frequently  sown  at  the  same  season,  one  is  liable  to 
be  weakened  by  the  growth  of  the  other.     In  locali- 
ties quite  favorable  to  the  growth  of  crimson  clover, 
as,  for  instance,  the  state  of  Delaware,  the  clover 
unduly  shades  the  rye,  and  in  places  where  the  oppo- 
site conditions  prevail,  the  rye  may  unduly  crowd 
the  clover.     But  when  both  are  kept  grazed  off,  the 
author  fails  to  see  why  these  should  not  be  grown 
with  much  advantage  together  in  providing  pasture, 
at  least  under  some  conditions. 

5.  Rye  may  be  pastured  for  a  time  in  the  spring 


l8o  FORAGE    CROPS. 

and  still  produce  a  good  crop  of  matured  grain  the 
same  season.  The  pasturing  tends  to  make  the  rye 
stool  more  than  it  would  without  being  pastured, 
but  if  the  grazing  is  continued  too  long,  the  plants 
will  be  so  weakened  that  the  heads  will  be  small, 
and,  consequently,  the  yield  of  the  grain  will  be  light. 
The  best  time  to  remove  the  live  stock  cannot  be 
stated,  conditions  vary  so  much,  but  the  drier  the 
weather,  the  "slower"  the  soil,  and  the  poorer  the 
land,  the  earlier  should  the  live  stock  be  removed. 

6.  If  the  rye  should' joint  and  so  get  beyond  the 
power  of  the  stock  to  feed  it  down,  it  should  be 
plowed  under,  and  not  later  than  the  earing  stage. 
When  thus  buried,  in  a  normal  season,  it  will  give 
the  land  much  increased  power  to  hold  moisture. 

MIXED  GRAINS. 

Pastures  from  cereal  grains  grown  in  combina- 
tion are  not  only  more  productive,  relatively,  in  some 
sections  than  grass  pastures,  but  they  can  be  grown 
any  season,  hence  they  may  be  made  to  supplement 
the  latter  in  whole  or  in  part  when  they  may  have 
failed  from  any  cause,  or  combination  of  causes. 
They  are  especially  serviceable  in  providing  pasture 
for  sheep  and  swine,  since  they  are  injured  less  by 
treading  than  if  pastured  with  cattle  and  horses,  but 
on  many  of  the  western  prairies  they  may  be  turned 
to  excellent  account  in  providing  pasture  for  either 
cattle  or  horses.  While  these  pastures  are  variously 
formed,  the  following  are  the  more  common  of  the 
mixtures  sown,  viz. :  i,  peas  and  oats ;  2,  barley  and 
oats ;  3,  wheat,  barley  and  oats ;  and,  4,  wheat,  bar- 
ley, oats  and  rye.  The  place  given  to  these  pastures 


THE     COMMON    CEREALS.  l8l 

in  the  rotation,  the  soils  suitable  to  their  growth,  the 
mode  of  preparing  the  soils,  of  sowing  the  seed,  and 
of  feeding  them  off,  are  essentially  the  same. 

Distribution. — Although  grain  pastures  may  be 
grown  successfully  in  any  part  of  the  country  in 
which  grain  will  grow  successfully,,  they  are  espe- 
cially adapted  to  prairie  soils,  for  reasons  already 
given.  The  first  of  these  mixtures  is  considered  the 
most  suitable  in  providing  pasture  for  sheep  and 
swine.  Oats  for  seed  may  commonly  be  obtained 
cheaply,  and  pea  vines  furnish  palatable  and  nutri- 
tious food.  Peas  would  be  much  injured  by  the 
treading  of  horses  and  cattle.  The  second  mixture, 
viz.,  barley  and  oats,  is  a  favorite  in  providing  pas- 
ture for  swine,  more  especially  in  those  portions  of 
the  northwestern  states  in  which  clover  has  not  yet 
been  successfully  grown.  But  it  will  answer  equally 
well  in  providing  pasture  for  sheep,  and  in  many 
parts  of  the  country  it  can  be  more  cheaply  produced, 
since  barley  is  cheaper,  relatively,  than  peas.  The 
third  and  fourth  of  the  mixtures  are  more  commonly 
sown  to  provide  pasture  for  horses  and  cattle.  Peas 
are  not  included  in  them,  because  of  the  injury  the 
peas  would  receive  from  being  trodden  upon  by  the 
broad  hoofs,  and  because  of  the  greater  relative 
dearness  of  the  seed.  In  the  upper  Mississippi  and 
Hudson  Bay  basins,  therefore,  they  will  render  the 
best  of  service. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — These  pastures  may  be 
given  any  place  in  the  rotation  that  may  be  con- 
venient. When  grass  seeds  are  not  to  be  sown  upon 
them  they  may  be  grown  upon  land  that  is  foul  with 
weeds,  for  the  reason,  first,  that  the  grazing  of  the 
pastures  prevents  the  weeds  from  maturing  their 


1 82  FORAGE    CROPS. 

seeds,  and,  second,  that  the  pasturing  season  is  over 
sufficiently  early  to  admit  of  following  with  a 
catch  crop  the  same  season,  or  of  fallowing  the  land. 
Soils  thus  managed  would  be  much  cleaner  at  the 
close  of  the  season  than  at  its  commencement.  If, 
however,  grass  seeds  are  to  be  sown  on  these  pas- 
tures, they  should  be  grown  only  on  clean  land. 

Soils. — The  most  suitable  soils  for  these  pas- 
tures are  those  ordinarily  found  on  the  northwestern 
prairie,  that  is  to  say,  loam  soils  rich  in  humus,  with 
enough  sand  in  them  to  keep  them  free-working, 
and,  withal,  resting  on  a  subsoil  of  clay.  Any  soil 
that  has  been  found  peculiarly  adapted  to  the  produc- 
tion of  heavy  crops  of  grain  will  also  grow  good 
cereal  pastures.  And  these  may  also  be  grown  with 
much  advantage  on  soils  that  produce  straw  too 
abundant  and  too  weak  for  first-class  yields  of  grain, 
since  these  pastures  may  be  eaten  down  before  the 
grain  is  far  enough  advanced  to  lodge  upon  them. 
In  the  northeastern  states  of  the  Union,  and  in  the 
eastern  provinces  of  Canada,  soils  of  free  texture 
should  be  given  the  preference  in  growing  these 
pastures.  Infertile  sands  will  not  produce  sufficient 
growth.  And  stiff  clays  would  be  greatly  injured 
by  eating  down  the  pastures  in  a  wet  season.  These 
pastures  require  soils  that  admit  of  early  sowing, 
that  will  produce  a  quick  growth,  and  that  will 
not  take  serious  harm  by  grazing  the  pastures 
when  moist. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — As  a  rule,  the  ground 
should  be  plowed  in  the  fall,  but  to  this  there  may 
be  some  exceptions.  It. should  be  plowed  in  the  fall 
that  the  seed  may  be  sown  upon  it  early  and  for 
other  reasons.  Whether  autumn  or  spring  plowing 


THE    COMMON    CEREALS.  183 

is  preferable  will  depend  upon  conditions  of  soil  and 
climate.  The  best  time  for  plowing  land  to  produce 
a  good  grain  crop  will  also  be  the  best  time  to  plow 
for  cereal  pastures,  and  this  knowledge  will  be  pos- 
sessed by  farmers  in  their  respective  localities.  It 
may  be  said,  further,  that  the  best  preparation  of  the 
soil  for  grain  production  will  also  be  the  best  prepa- 
ration for  producing  grain  pasture. 

Solving. — The  seed  of  each  of  these  mixtures 
should  be  sown  as  soon  in  the  spring  as  the  ground 
is  in  a  good  condition  to  be  worked.  When  thus 
sown,  more  food  will  be  produced  in  an  average 
season  than  if  sown  later. 

It  is  preferable  to  sow  the  seed  with  the  grain 
drill,  as  it  is  then  buried  more  uniformly  than  if  cov- 
ered with  the  broadcast  seeder  or  the  harrow.  The 
drill  is  also  more  economical  of  seed,  and  it  puts  the 
seed  so  far  down  that  the  young  plants  are  not  so 
liable  to  be  torn  out  by  the  harrow  when  the  latter 
is  run  over  the  ground  subsequent  to  the  sprouting 
of  the  seed.  When  labor  is  not  pressing,  it  may  be 
well  to  divide  the  seed  into  two  equal  lots  and  to 
sow  it  with  two  casts  of  the  drill.  The  second  cast 
should  be  made  to  run  at  a  right  angle  across  the 
first.  The  seed  should  be  buried  at  the  depth  that 
has  been  found  the  most  suitable  for  cereals  as 
ordinarily  sown. 

What  is  termed  heavy  seeding  is  preferred. 
The  amount  of  seed  best  suited  to  the  different  kinds 
of  soil  will  vary,  hence  it  cannot  be  stated  here,  but, 
as  a  rule,  it  will  prove  satisfactory  to  sow  not  less 
than  three  bushels  per  acre  of  the  combined  grain 
mixture,  of  whatever  varieties  it  may  be  composed. 

In  determining  the  proportions  of  each  variety 


184  FORAGE    CROPS. 

of  grain  included  in  a  mixture,  no  better  general 
rule  can  be  adopted  than  to  use  by  measure  equal 
parts  of  each.  But  in  some  instances  it  will  be 
advantageous  to  depart  from  this  rule.  In  some 
soils,  for  example,  peas  may  grow  much  more  vigor- 
ously than  in  others,  and  a  less  proportion  of  the 
peas  would  be  required  in  these,  and  so  of  each  of 
the  other  grains.  The  pasture  produced  by  some 
cereals  is  better  relished  by  certain  kinds  of  live 
stock  than  that  produced  by  others,  hence  more, 
relatively,  of  these  should  be  sown. 

Barley  is  more  relished  by  swine  than  oats, 
'thus  when  these  two  are  sown  to  provide  swine 
pasture,  more  of  the  barley  should  be  used  than  of 
the  oats.  Indeed,  barley  alone  makes  an  excellent 
swine  pasture,  but  oats  sown  along  with  it  prolongs 
the  term  of  pasturing.  Again,  the  seed  of  some  one 
kind  of  grain  may  be  so  dear  that  it  may  be  well  to 
omit  it  from  the  mixture.  Wheat,  for  instance, 
may  be  so  much  dearer  than  the  other  kinds  of  grain 
that  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  sow  it  with  them. 

Cultivation. — Oftentimes  further  cultivation  is 
not  needed  after  these  mixtures  have  been  sown,  but 
in  instances  not  a  few  the  harrow  may  be  used  with 
some  benefit  to  the  pastures,  and  more  especially 
when  a  mixture  of  peas  and  oats  has  been  sown. 
A  light  harrow  only  should  be  used,  and  with  the 
teeth  aslant,  unless  the  surface  soil  has  become 
encrusted.  Usually  the  best  time  to  use  the  harrow 
is  just  before  the  grain  comes  up.  Harrowing  helps 
to  keep  the  soil  moist  and  free  from  weeds. 

Pasturing. — The  most  suitable  stage  of  growth 
at  which  to  begin  the  pasturing  cannot  be  stated,  as 
it  will  vary  with  the  character  of  the  season,  the 


THE     COMMON    CEREALS.  185 

extent  of  the  pasture  and  other  conditions.  The 
more  vigorous  the  growth  of  the  plants,  and  the 
larger  the  area  of  the  pasture  in  proportion  to  the 
live  stock  that  are  to  feed  upon  it,  the  earlier  should 
the  pasturing  begin.  Ordinarily,  it  should  be  sev- 
eral inches  high  before  turning  in  the  live  stock  upon 
it.  When  it  can  be  grazed  so  as  to  prevent  the 
plants  from  reaching  the  jointing  stage,  much  more 
pasture  will  be  obtained  than  under  conditions  the 
opposite,  since  it  will  then  grow  again. 

Such  pasture  is  excellent  for  all  kinds  of  live 
stock.  There  is  no  danger  that  the  animals  will  be 
injured  by  bloating  when  feeding  upon  it.  But  care 
should  always  be  taken  to  avoid  making  a  sudden 
change  from  all-grass  pasture  to  all-grain  pasture, 
lest  disturbance  should  arise  in  the  digestion.  Such 
pasture  is  excellent  in  stimulating  milk  production, 
hence  lambs  that  are  still  nursing  grow  rapidly  upon 
it,  and  cows  in  milk  produce  abundantly. 

Sheep  and  swine  may  be  allowed  to  remain 
upon  grain  pastures  all  the  time,  when  the  weather 
is  dry,  and  the  same  is  also  true  of  cattle  and  horses, 
but  it  is  not  a  good  plan  to  keep  the  latter  upon  them 
all  the  time,  more  especially  when  the  growth  is 
somewhat  advanced,  as  they  injure  it  more  by  tread- 
ing and  lying  down  upon  it  than  they  would  if 
removed  from  the  pasture  when  they  had  eaten  a 
sufficiency  of  it. 

Observations. — i.  It  \vould  be  impossible  to 
state  just  when  one  or  another  of  these  mixtures 
should  be  preferred  under  all  conditions.  However, 
peas  and  oats  or  oats  and  barley  have  been  found 
very  suitable  in  providing  sheep  pasture.  Barley 
alone  or  with  a  moderate  addition  of  oats  makes  an 


1 86  FORAGE    CROPS. 

excellent  swine  pasture.  And  the  combination  with 
all  the  cereals  in  it  is  more  frequently  used  in  pro- 
viding pasture  for  cattle  and  horses. 

2.  The  aim  should  be  to  keep  the  stock  away 
from  these  pastures  when  wet  with  rain,  or  even 
with  heavy  dew,  and  more  especially  when  they  are 
rank  and  advanced  in  growth.     At  such  times  tread- 
ing will  soil  and  bruise  them  much  more  than  when 
they  are  dry. 

3.  If  the  pasture  gets  ahead  of  the  live  stock, 
that  is,  if  it  becomes  so  abundant  that  much  of  it 
cannot  be  consumed,  it  will  serve  an  excellent  pur- 
pose if  plowed  under.     But  it  ought  to  be  thus 
buried  while  yet  succulent,  else  in  sections  deficient 
in  moisture  it  may  not  decay  with  sufficient  rapidity. 

4.  If  these  pastures  could  be  eaten  down,  as  it 
were,  at  successive  stages,  that  is  to  say,  by  cropping 
them  down  and  then  removing  the  live  stock  entirely 
until  considerable  growth  had  again  been  made,  more 
pasture  would  be  secured  than  can  be  obtained  by 
constant  grazing.     But  to  manage  them  thus  is  not 
always  practicable. 

5.  Winter  rye  may  be  sown  with  much  pro- 
priety immediately  after  the  grazing  of  these  pas- 
tures has  been  completed,  as  it  may  then  have  a  long 
period  of  growth  before  the  closing  in  of  winter. 

6.  At   the   Minnesota    University   experiment 
farm,  the  author  has  met  with  encouraging  success 
in  sowing  grass  seeds  at  the  same  time  that  the 
grains  were  sown.     A  good  stand  of  grass  has  thus 
been  obtained  during  successive  years  from  timothy 
and  clover  sown  with  peas  and  oats  and  eaten  down 
by  sheep.     The  treading  of  the  sheep  on  average 
prairie  soils  thus  sown  would  seem  to  be  helpful 


THE     COMMON    CEREALS.  187 

rather  than  harmful  to  the  grass.  And  the  same 
would  seem  to  be  true  of  the  treading  of  cattle, 
though  in  a  less  degree. 

PASTURING  CEREALS  WHEN  YOUNG. 

On  the  rich  soils  of  the  upper  Mississippi  basin, 
cereals  may  oftentimes  be  pastured  for  a  time  by 
sheep  with  positive  advantage  to  the  crop.  This 
has  been  demonstrated  by  individual  farmers,  but 
not  with  that  exactness  that  could  be  desired.  The 
sheep  are  allowed  to  feed  upon  the  grain  for  a  longer 
or  shorter  period,  and  then  they  are  removed  and 
the  crop  is  left  to  mature. 

Benefits  Resulting. — The  following  are  chief 
among  the  benefits  resulting  from  such  depasturing : 
i,  the  treading  of  the  land  by  the  hoofs  of  the 
sheep  tends  to  make  it  firmer,  and  because  of  this 
increased  firmness,  the  loss  of  moisture  from  sur- 
face evaporation  is  materially  lessened;  2,  cropping 
off  the  grain  when  it  is  young  tends  to  make  it  stool 
more,  and  consequently  increases  the  number  of  the 
heads  of  the  grain ;  and,  3,  the  pasturing  hinders  that 
excess  of  growth  in  the  crop  which  it  would  other- 
wise have  on  very  rich  lands  in  moist  seasons,  hence 
the  liability  to  lodge  is  lessened  and  the  energies  of 
the  plant  are  centered  on  producing  grain  rather 
than  exhausted  in  producing  an  excess  of  straw. 

Mode  of  Pasturing. — The  sheep  may  be  put 
upon  the  grain  as  soon  as  it  is  far  enough  advanced 
to  furnish  them  with  food,  or  they  may  be  allowed 
to  roam  over  it  from  an  adjacent  grass  pasture  from 
the  date  of  sowing.  The  duration  of  the  pasturing 
will  depend  chiefly  on  the  character  of  the  season. 


1 88  FORAGE    CROPS. 

In  a  season  of  much  growth,  the  sheep  may  feed 
upon  the  pastures  for  a  period  considerably  longer 
than  in  a  season  opposite  in  character. 

Good  Judgment  Required. — Good  judgment 
must  be  used  in  thus  pasturing  off  cereals.  If  the 
pasturing  is  too  long  continued  the  grain  will  not 
make  sufficient  growth.  As  the  character  of  the 
weather  subsequent  to  the  removal  of  the  sheep  can- 
not be  known  beforehand,  prudence  would  dictate 
their  removal  at  an  early  period.  The  pasturing  of 
cereals  should  probably  not  be  attempted  on  land 
where  the  danger  of  an  excess  of  growth  is  not  immi- 
nent. Nor  should  sheep  be  used  in  thus  pasturing 
off  cereals  on  clay  lands  when  these  are  wet,  however 
strong  the  growth  of  the  young  cereals  may  be,  as 
the  impaction  of  the  land  that  would  follow  would 
be  more  or  less  disastrous  to  the  grain. 


CHAPTER  IX. 

MILLET. 

Millet  in  all  its  species  and  varieties  may 
be  made  to  furnish  food  for  live  stock  in  the 
form  of  grain  or  seed,  fodder,  soiling  food  or 
pasture.  More  commonly,  however,  it  is  grown 
to  provide  fodder.  For  this  purpose  it  is  most 
excellent,  especially  in  the  smaller  and  finer 
growing  varieties.  But  to  furnish  fodder  at  its 
best,  it  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  fully  headed 
out,  or  very  soon  after  reaching  that  stage,  and  it 
must  be  cured  with  care.  Under  favorable  condi- 
tions, in  some  of  its  varieties,  it  produces  enormous 
yields.  Of  the  small  varieties,  however,  the  average 
yield  may  be  placed  at  one  to  two  tons  per  acre.  If 
the  seeds  are  allowed  to  mature  or  to  approach 
maturity,  the  fodder  rapidly  becomes  woody,  hence 
its  value  for  food  is  much  impaired.  When  fed  in  a 
ripe  condition,  there  is  some  hazard  in  feeding  it 
indiscriminately  to  certain  kinds  of  live  stock,  but 
this  would  not  seem  to  hold  true  of  millet  hay  cut 
at  the  stage  indicated.  It  furnishes  excellent  soil- 
ing food  and  at  a  season  when  it  is  much  needed. 

Heretofore,  millet  has  not  been  much  grown 
to  provide  pasture,  but  in  this  respect  also  it  has  a 
mission.  On  the  bare  fallow  of  the  prairies  it  may 
be  grown  as  a  pasture  with  much  success.  In  addi- 
tion to  the  food  furnished,  the  land  will  be  benefited 
by  the  treading  of  animals  while  pasturing  upon  it. 

189 


FORAGE    CROPS. 

Nor  would  it  always  be  necessary  to  replow  the  land 
after  the  millet  when  preparing  it  for  the  crop 
which  would  next  be  sown.  And  on  any  farm 
where  live  stock  are  kept,  it  may  sometimes  be  pas- 
tured with  advantage.  But  because  of  its  value  for 
hay,  and  because  of  the  ease  with  which  it  may  be 
cured  and  handled  as  hay,  it  is  usually  considered  of 
too  much  value  to  grow  it  as  pasture.  The  pasture 
is  much  relished  by  all  kinds  of  farm  animals,  since 
the  leaf  growth  is  abundant.  But  it  is  not  equally 
so  in  the  different  varieties. 

There  are  many  kinds  of  millet,  and  the  dis- 
tinctions which  characterize  them  have  not  hereto- 
fore been  very  clearly  drawn.  The  following 
classification,  however,  submitted  by  the  department 
of  agrostology  at  Washington,  D.  C,  would  seem 
to  be  incomparably  the  best  that  has  yet  been  made . 
It  divides  the  cultivated  millets  into  four  groups, 
viz :  The  Foxtail,  the  Barnyard,  the  Broomcorn  and 
the  Pearl  millets. 

The  first  group  includes  the  varieties  derived 
from  the  various  species  of  the  genus  Chaetochloa 
(Setaria).  To  this  group  belong  the  common  mil- 
let, the  German,  the  Hungarian  and  the  Golden 
Wonder.  Common  millet,  of  which  there  would 
seem  to  be  several  varieties,  does  not  produce  so 
abundantly  as  the  other  members  of  this  group. 
The  heads  are  small  and  likewise  the  seeds.  Ger- 
man millet,  sometimes  called  "Golden,"  from  the 
rich  color  of  the  heads,  is  characterized  by  a  plentiful 
production  of  leaves.  The  heads  are  thick  and 
heavy  and  are  covered  with  short,  fine  hairs.  They 
have  a  plump  and  heavy  appearance  when  fully 
developed.  Hungarian  millet  is  sometimes  called 


MILLET. 

Hungarian  "grass."  It  has  a  long  and  slender  head, 
and  the  heads  are  of  a  darker  shade  than  those  of  the 
German  variety.  Golden  Wonder  millet  produces 
large  and  long  heads.  The  panicle  is  somewhat 
branched,  that  is  to  say,  it  is  made  up  of  many  min- 
iature heads  attached  to  the  central  stem  of  the  same. 
This  sort  is  well  adapted  to  the  production  of 
grain.  Of  the  Foxtail  group  the  German  variety  is 
probably  the  best  for  pasture  under  average  condi- 
tions, because  of  the  abundance  of  the  leaves  which 
characterizes  it. 

The  Barnyard  millets  include  the  varieties 
derived  from  the  common  barnyard  grass  (Panicum 
crus-galli)  and  such  related  species  as  P.  colonum 
and  P.  frumentaceum.  The  Japanese  kinds  belong 
to  this  group.  These  are  of  much  larger  and  coarser 
growth  than  the  Foxtail  millets.  The  leaves  are 
very  long,  and  as  they  approach  maturity  they 
become  pendent.  The  heads  are  very  large  and 
produce  an  abundance  of  seed.  The  Japanese  mil- 
lets are  adapted  to  the  production  of  soiling  food 
rather  than  to  the  production  of  pasture,  but  under 
some  conditions  they  may  be  grown  for  the  latter 
purpose  also. 

The  Broomcorn  millets  are  derived  from  Pani- 
cum miliaceum.  They  are  so  named,  doubtless, 
from  the  resemblance  of  the  head  or  panicle  to  the 
brush  on  broomcorn.  The  varieties  are  exceedingly 
variable  and  are  as  yet  not  well  understood  in 
America,  hence  it  is  not  possible  to  classify  them  at 
present  with  unerring  accuracy.  They  are  rela- 
tively better  adapted  to  produce  seed  than  to  provide 
pasture.  One  variety  of  Broomcorn  millet,  now 
grown  somewhat  extensively  in  the  northwestern 


192  FORAGE    CROPS. 

states,  is  frequently  called  "hog  millet,"  from  the 
extent  to  which  the  seed  has  been  grown  to  provide 
food  for  swine. 

The  Pearl  millets  include  varieties  belonging  to 
the  various  species  of  Pennisetum.  One  kind  of 
Pearl  millet  (Penicillaria  spicata)  is  sometimes 
called  "cat-tail  millet,"  from  the  marked  resemblance 
of  the  panicle  to  the  common  cat-tail  (Typha  lati- 
folia)  of  the  swamps.  It  is  like  corn  in  the  tall  and 
upright  habit  of  its  growth.  It  is  like  teosinte  in 
its  tendency  to  produce  an  abundance  of  leaves  and 
suckers,  and  it  is  like  sorghum  in  its  habit  of  bearing 
seed  on  a  head  which  grows  on  the  upper  extremity 
of  the  stem.  When  planted  on  rich  soil  and  culti- 
vated, it  will  grow  to  the  hight  of  eight  to  ten  feet. 
As  many  as  ninty-five  tons  have  been  grown  per 
acre  on  very  rich  land  from  three  cuttings  in  one 
season.  When  cut  off  or  eaten  down  it  springs  up 
again  quickly  and  with  much  vigor.  It  should, 
therefore,  be  valuable  as  a  pasture,  as  soiling  food  or 
as  fodder,  providing  it  is  found  sufficiently  pala- 
table. If  cut  when  approaching  maturity,  or 
even  after  the  head  has  appeared,  it  may  be  easily 
cured,  and  in  the  same  manner  as  corn.  But  it  is 
difficult  to  cure  if  cut  before  the  heading-out  stage. 
Some  authorities  speak  discouragingly  of  its  value 
as  a  food  for  live  stock.  The  experience  of  the 
author  in  growing  it  at  the  Minnesota  University 
experiment  station  will  not  permit  the  unqualified 
acceptance  of  such  a  view. 

Distribution. — Millet  in  one  or  the  other  of  its 
varieties  may  be  grown  so  as  to  mature  its  seed  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada 
where  the  land  is  tilled.  This  wide  distribution 


MILLET.  193 

arises  from  the  short  period  required  to  enable  the 
crop  to  perfect  its  growth.     Some  of  the  smaller 
varieties  will  mature  in  sixty  to  seventy-five  days 
from  the  date  of  sowing,  under  favorable  conditions. 
These  conditions   include  a  good  soil,   warm 
weather  and  a   sufficiency  of  moisture.     In   some 
portions  of  Canada,  as  Manitoba  and  Assiniboia,  for 
instance,    these    varieties    do    not    require  a  much 
longer  period  to  mature  their  growth  than  in  states 
far  to  the  south.     This  is  owing  to  the  heat  and  to 
the  long  hours  of  sunlight  which  characterize  the 
summer  days  in  these  northerly  climes.     But,  since 
some  of  the   large   varieties,   as   Pearl   millet,  for 
instance,   require  about   150  days  to  mature  seed, 
these  are  not  well  adapted  to  being  grown  in  the 
northern  states  to  provide  winter  fodder.     Some  of 
the  Japanese  varieties,  however,  will  perfect  their 
growth  in  the  inland  portions  of  the  continent  as 
far  north,  at  least,  as  the  latitude  of  St.  Paul.     Since 
millet  cannot  flourish  where  the  mean  summer  tem- 
peratures are  low,  it  is  somewhat  lacking  in  adapta- 
tion to  the  maritime  provinces  of  Canada,  as  New 
Brunswick,  Nova  Scotia  and  Prince  Edward  Island. 
Nor  has  it  special  adaptation  for  the  New  England 
states,  although  good  crops  of  millet  may  be  grown 
in    these.     The    mean    summer    temperatures    of 
Oregon,  Washington  and  British  Columbia  between 
the  mountains  and  the  sea  are  also  rather  low  for 
millet,  and  the  same  is  true  of  the  elevated  Rocky 
mountain  valleys.     In  the  lower  of  these,  however, 
it    will    flourish    if    given    moisture.     In    what    is 
termed  the  dry  belt  west  of  the  Mississippi  river,  in 
some  seasons  millet  may  fail  because  of  the  lack  of 
moisture  at  the  proper  season  for  sowing  the  seed. 
13 


194  FORAGE    CROPS. 

The  prairies  of  the  Mississippi  basin  and  its  tribu- 
taries have  marked  adaptation  for  the  growth  of 
millet,  and  this  adaptation  would  seem  to  be  the 
most  complete  in  loose  soils  not  very  well  adapted 
to  the  growth  of  hay  and  some  other  grasses. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Owing  to  the  lateness 
of  the  season  at  which  millet  is  sown,  it  is  frequently 
grown  as  a  "catch"  crop,  that  is  to  say,  as  a  crop 
where  that  which  previously  occupied  the  land  has 
failed,  or  between  two  crops.  It  may  thus  be  made 
to  come  after  winter  wheat  which  has  suffered  so 
much  from  the  severity  of  the  winter  weather  that 
it  is  not  worth  while  leaving  it.  It  may  come  after 
spring  grain  that  has  succumbed  to  such  adverse 
influences  as  frost,  too  much  or  too  little  moisture 
or  to  the  ravages  of  insect  pests.  And  with  much 
appropriateness  it  may  come  after  clover  that  has 
been  winterkilled,  for  then  nitrogen,  its  favorite 
food,  is  plentiful  in  the  soil.  But  there  is  no  place, 
probably,  where  millet  can  be  grown  with  more 
appropriateness  for  pasture  than  when  it  is  sown  on 
the  bare  fallow. 

It  is  possessed  of  peculiar  adaptation  for  being 
thus  grown  on  the  loose  soils  of  western  prairies, 
since  these  are  usually  improved  rather  than  injured 
by  being  trodden  upon  by  live  stock.  When  thus 
grown  it  interferes  with  the  growth  of  no  other 
crop.  It  may  be  eaten  off  at  any  stage  of  growth 
desired,  and  without  injury  to  the  fallow  in  any 
instance  where  a  due  regard  is  had  to  the  conditions 
while  it  is  being  grazed  down. 

Millet  may  be  followed  by  any  crop  that  it  is 
desirable  to  grow,  but  since  it  greedily  preys  upon 
the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  absorbs  much  moisture 


MILLET.  195 

from  the  same,  there  may  be  seasons  in  which  it 
would  be  unwise  to  follow  millet  with  winter  wheat 
or  winter  rye.  But  when  the  millet  is  pastured 
rather  than  made  into  hay,  the  drain  upon  the  fer- 
tility and  also  upon  the  moisture  in  the  soil  is  much 
less  than  when  the  millet  is  grown  for  hay  or 
for  seed. 

Soils. — The  soils  best  adapted  to  millet  are 
those  rich  in  humus.  Such  are  the  soils  of  swamps 
and  slough  lands,  basins  or  pockets  surrounded  by 
higher  land,  the  lesser  and  also  the  greater  valleys 
in  clay  sections,  and  river  bottoms  in  which  sand  is 
not  present  in  any  considerable  proportion.  Many 
of  the  soils  of  the  prairie  also  abound  in  humus, 
especially  when  they  are  first  broken,  hence  their 
high  adaptation  to  the  growth  of  millet.  Muck 
soils  are  excellent  when  not  too  wet  or  too  dry.  The 
crop  may  oftentimes  be  grown  successfully  on  these 
while  yet  undrained,  after  the  saturating  waters  of 
the  springtime  have  "subsided.  But  on  such  lands 
the  danger  is  imminent,  in  climates  of  ample  rainfall, 
that  the  saturating  waters  may  come  again  before 
the  crop  has  been  utilized.  Medium  to  good  crops 
of  millet  may  be  grown  on  clay  soils  amply  supplied 
with  moisture,  but  usually  the  growth  on  these  is 
slow.  Sandy  soils  are  ill-adapted  to  its  growth 
when  low  in  plant  food,  and  the  want  of  adaptation 
in  these  soils  increases  with  the  increasing  dryness 
of  the  climate.  But  the  gray  soils  of  the  Rocky 
mountain  valleys  have  much  adaptation  for  millet. 
It  is  not  so  much  needed  in  these  areas,  however, 
because  of  the  wonderful  adaptation  of  the  soils  for 
growing  alfalfa. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — In  preparing  the  soil  on 


196  FORAGE    CROPS. 

which  millet  is  to  be  sown,  the  aim  should  be  to  have 
it  in  fine  tilth,  clean  and  moist.  With  stiff  clay  soils 
a  fine  seed  bed  is  absolutely  essential  to  the  success- 
ful growth  of  the  crop.  When  millet  is  the  only 
crop  grown  on  the  land  during  the  season,  there  is 
ample  time  so  to  till  the  same  that  all  the  conditions 
named  above  shall  be  secured  before  the  period 
arrives  in  which  to  sow  the  millet.  They  are  secured 
by  stirring  the  surface  betimes  in  the  spring  before 
the  seed  is  sown.  This  should  not  be  neglected, 
whether  the  land  is  plowed  in  the  fall  or  in  the  early 
spring,  for  when  the  land  is  thus  harrowed  at  inter- 
vals, weed  seeds  that  lie  near  the  surface  will  be 
much  reduced,  to  the  great  advantage  of  the  crop. 
But  when  millet  is  grown  as  a  catch  crop,  the  season 
for  preparing  the  soil  is  short,  hence  it  may  be  nec- 
essary to  make  a  free  use  of  the  harrow  and  roller  to 
mellow  sufficiently  the  upturned  surface  of  the  land. 
When  it  is  sown  as  a  catch  crop  on  a  bare  fallow, 
there  will  be  ample  time  to  prepare  the  land  in  good 
form.  If  the  land  cannot  be  plowed  until  dry 
weather  sets  in,  it  ought  to  be  rolled  the  same  day 
that  it  is  plowed,  to  assist  in  retaining  the  moisture. 
But  when  millet  is  sown  as  a  catch  crop,  there  are 
instances  when  plowing  would  not  be  necessary. 
Some  form  of  cultivation  would  be  sufficient. 

It  is  not  customary  to  manure  land  when  pre- 
paring it  for  millet,  since  it  is  seldom  looked  upon 
as  a  leading  crop.  There  are  few  crops,  neverthe- 
less, that  will  give  a  more  liberal  response  to  the 
application  of  suitable  manures.  These  are  manures 
rich  in  nitrogen  and  in  an  easily  available  form. 
None  are  more  suitable  than  farmyard  manures 
in  a  somewhat  advanced  stage  of  decay,  and  incor- 


MILLET.  197 

porated  with  the  surface  soil.  But  to  get  much 
benefit  from  manures  applied  just  previous  to 
the  sowing  of  the  crop,  an  ample  supply  of  mois- 
ture is  needed. 

Sowing. — Since  millet  will  not  grow  vigorously 
while  the  weather  is  cool,  nothing  can  be  gained  by 
sowing  it  before  the  arrival  of  settled  warm  weather. 
It  should  not  be  sown  sooner  than  the  usual  season 
for  planting  corn.  But  it  may  be  sown  considerably 
later  than  that  season  when  the  conditions  as  to 
moisture  are  favorable.  Since  some  varieties  of 
millet  will  mature  in  two  months  or  a  little  more 
than  that  from  the  date  of  putting  in  the  seed,  the 
sowing  of  millets  may  be  continued  until  within 
sixty  to  seventy-five  days  of  the  usual  season  for 
early  frosts.  Millet  in  all  its  varieties  is  easily 
injured  by  frost.  When  grown  for  pasture,  even  a 
shorter  period  would  suffice  in  which  to  grow  it, 
since  it  would  of  necessity  be  eaten  down  before  the 
plants  had  reached  so  advanced  a  stage  of  growth. 
If  sown  sooner  than  the  season  mentioned,  the  plants 
will  start  feebly,  insomuch  that  no  after  conditions, 
however  favorable  they  may  be,  can  enable  them  to 
regain  what  they  have  lost  in  stamina.  This  has 
been  demonstrated  again  and  again  by  the  author 
while  growing  millets. 

The  mode  of  sowing  will  vary  with  circum- 
stances. More  commonly  the  seed  is  now  sown 
broadcast,  but  in  some  instances  it  is  sown  with  a 
grain  drill,  all  the  tubes  being  in  use.  The  latter 
method  buries  the  seed  more  uniformly,  and  there- 
fore insures  a  more  uniform  germination  when 
moisture  is  deficient  in  the  surface  soil.  Some  kinds 
of  grain  drills  cannot  be  made  to  sow  millet  suffi- 


198  FORAGE    CROPS. 

ciently  thin  unless  the  seed  has  first  been  mixed  with 
some  such  substance  as  salt. 

Some  kinds  of  millet,  as,  for  instance,  the  Jap- 
anese, ought  rather  to  be  sown  in  drills  or  rows  with 
space  enough  between  them  to  admit  of  horse  culti- 
vation. But  when  thus  sown,  the  object  sought  is 
to  obtain  fodder  rather  than  pasture. 

When  Pearl  millet  is  grown  to  provide  soiling 
food  in  the  cured  form,  it  should  probably  be  sown 
in  drills  (Fig.  23).  At  the  Minnesota  University 
experiment  station  good  results  were  obtained  from 
growing  Pearl  millet  in  rows  thirty  inches  apart, 
but  more  experimentation  is  needed  with  reference 
to  this  question.  In  the  south  it  may  be  necessary 
to  have  a  greater  distance  between  the  rows.  When 
sown  for  pasture  it  is  also  probable  that  Pearl  millet 
will  prove  more  satisfactory  if  sown  in  rows  and 
cultivated.  It  may  yet  be  found  that  good  results 
will  arise  from  sowing  it  broadcast  and  somewhat 
thinly  to  give  the  plants  room  to  tiller.  But  it  could 
never  be  thus  grown  successfully  unless  on 
clean  land. 

When  sown  broadcast  to  provide  soiling  food 
or  fodder,  from  two  to  four  pecks  of  the  seed  per 
acre  of  the  small  varieties  should  prove  ample. 
When  sown  to  provide  pasture,  the  amount  of  seed 
used  should  not  be  less  than  four  pecks.  More  seed 
is  required  on  worn  land  than  on  a  new  or  rich  soil, 
since  in  the  former  it  does  not  tiller  so  much. 

When  sown  in  rows  for  cultivation,  a  few 
pounds  of  seed  per  acre  will  suffice.  The  amount 
will  vary  with  the  distance  between  the  rows  and 
the  plants  in  the  line  of  the  row,  but  in  no  case  is 
the  quantity  large.  At  the  Minnesota  University 


MILLET. 


Fig.  23.    Pearl  nillet  Grown  for  Fodder 

Minnesota   University    Experiment    Farm. 


2OO  FORAGE    CROPS. 

experiment  station  six  pounds  of  seed  were  found 
ample  to  sow  one  acre  with  Pearl  millet  when  the 
rows  were  thirty  inches  apart.  The  seed  may  be 
sown  with  the  ordinary  press  grain  drill. 

The  covering  given  to  millet  seed  ought  to  be 
light.  If  the  roller  is  run  over  the  ground  before 
the  seed  is  sown,  it  will  be  buried  to  a  more  uniform 
depth,  especially  when  it  is  sown  broadcast.  And 
with  soils  that  do  not  lift  with  the  wind  it  will  be 
advantageous  to  use  the  roller  again  soon  after  the 
seed  is  sown,  when  moisture  is  not  present  in  suffi- 
cient quantity.  Since  millet  is  sown  somewhat  late 
in  the  season,  every  care  should  be  taken  to  conserve 
ample  moisture  to  give  the  crop  a  good  start. 

Cultivation. — When  millet  has  been  sown 
broadcast,  it  would  not  be  possible  to  run  even  a 
light  harrow  over  the  ground  after  the  seed  has 
germinated  without  injuring  some  of  the  young 
plants.  And  yet  there  may  be  conditions  when  the 
ground  is  so  filled  with  weed  seeds  near  the  surface 
that  harrowing  the  crop  thus  would  result  in  an 
increased  yield  of  millet.  The  aim  should  be  to 
clean  the  soil  as  far  as  possible  on  the  surface  before 
sowing  the  millet.  But  when  the  seed  has  been 
buried  with  the  drill  it  would  be  advantageous  to 
run  a  light  harrow  over  the  surface  with  the  teeth 
much  aslant,  just  before  the  young  plants  have 
appeared.  The  after  cultivation  suitable  for  millet 
that  has  been  thus  planted  is  about  the  same  as  that 
which  would  be  suitable  for  corn  (see  Page  22). 
But  in  the  case  of  Pearl  millet  cut  for  soiling  food 
or  even  grazed  down,  the  cultivation  could  be  pro- 
longed till  toward  the  end  of  the  season.  Cultiva- 
tion given  just  after  the  plants  had  been  eaten  down 


MILLET.  2OI 

and  for  some  time  subsequently,  would  enable  them 
to  grow  up  again  more  quickly  and  more  vigorously 
than  if  such  cultivation  were  not  given. 

Pasturing. — Any  class  of  live  stock  may  be 
grazed  upon  millet.  Sheep  will  injure  it  less 
through  treading  than  other  animals.  The  stock 
may  be  turned  in  upon  it  as  soon  as  the  plants  are 
sufficiently  well  rooted  to  retain  their  hold  upon  the 
soil  while  it  is  being  grazed.  This  period  will  vary 
with  variations  in  soils,  but  usually  it  will  arrive 
some  days  before  indications  of  jointing  manifest 
themselves  in  the  plants.  When  sown  on  summer 
fallows  where  green  manure  is  an  important  consid- 
eration, the  millet  may  be  allowed  to  reach  a  more 
advanced  stage  of  growth  before  live  stock  are 
turned  in  upon  it.  The  uneaten  residue  may  be 
plowed  under  to  benefit  the  soil. 

At  the  Minnesota  University  experiment  sta- 
tion, Pearl  millet  has  been  grazed  down,  at  least  to 
some  extent,  by  sheep.  The  results  were  not  dis- 
couraging. The  sheep  fed  upon  it  without  hesita- 
tion, and  when  removed  from  the  plot  it  sprang  up 
quickly  again.  But  it  should  not  be  allowed  to 
become  coarse  and  rank  before  turning  in  the  sheep. 
\Yhere  sorghum  can  be  grown  in  good  form,  how- 
ever, it  is  questionable  whether,  under  any  condi- 
tions, it  would  be  more  advantageous  to  grow  Pearl 
millet  for  pasture. 


CHAPTER  X. 

ROOT  CROPS. 

Root  crops  can  be  said  to  be  grown  for  forage 
only  when  the  animals  which  consume  them  are 
allowed  to  feed  upon  them  in  the  field  where  they 
grew.  They  harvest  them  without  the  aid  of  man, 
unless  in  so  far  as  he  regulates  the  freedom  of  access 
which  they  are  given  to  these  crops.  The  variety 
of  root  crops  that  may  thus  be  harvested  with  profit 
is  limited.  On  this  continent  the  chief  of  these 
would  be  rutabagas,  turnips  and  artichokes.  Tur- 
nips are  grown  to  a  much  greater  extent  than  ruta- 
bagas and  artichokes. 

RUTABAGAS. 

The  term  rutabaga  (Brassica  campestris) 
would  seem  to  be  American,  in  its  application,  at 
least,  whatever  may  be  said  of  its  origin.  In  Britain 
and  Canada  this  field  root  is  known  as  the  Swedish 
turnip.  In  Britain  it  has  long  been  grown  as  for- 
age for  sheep,  but  it  is  also  grown  there  even  to  a 
greater  extent  for  winter  feeding.  When  grown 
for  forage  it  is  allowed  to  mature  before  being 
grazed  off.  The  grazing  takes  place  in  the  late 
autumn  and  early  winter  months.  In  Canada  it 
cannot  be  thus  grazed  off,  unless  in  British  Colum- 
bia, owing  to  the  severity  of  the  winter  weather. 
And  the  same  is  true  of  nearly  all  parts  of  the  United 

202 


ROOT    CROPS.  203 

States  that  are  well  adapted  to  its  growth.  The 
exceptions  are  along-  the  coast  line  of  Washington 
and  Oregon.  In  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
therefore,  the  rutabaga  when  grown  is  chiefly  stored 
in  cellars  and  pits  and  fed  to  the  live  stock  in  winter. 
It  makes  a  grand  winter  food  for  all  kinds  of 
live  stock. 

While  the  rutabaga  can  only  be  grazed  off  after 
the  English  method  on  the  Pacific  slope,  or  in  cer- 
tain of  the  mountain  valleys  of  the  south  and  south- 
west, it  can  also  be  grown  as  pasture  for  sheep  in 
many  sections  of  the  country  by  broadcasting  it  on 
certain  soils  and  grazing  it  off  before  the  season  of 
hard  frost.  When  thus  grown  it  is  usually  on  new 
lands,  frequently  spoken  of  as  "breaking."  This 
method  of  growing  rutabagas  is  not  likely  to  become 
very  prevalent  in  this  country. 

Distribution. — The  rutabaga  as  a  winter  food 
for  live  stock  has  a  wide  range  of  adaptation.  Like 
rape  this  plant  is  found  at  its  best  where  the  weather 
is  moist  and  cool.  But  good  crops  can  be  grown  in 
some  of  the  western  mountain  valleys  in  which  it 
cannot  be  said  of  the  air  that  it  is  really  moist. 
Western  Oregon  and  Washington,  near  the  sea, 
British  Columbia  and  Ontario  have  special  adapta- 
tion for  rutabagas.  In  all  the  provinces  of  Canada 
east  from  Assiniboia  they  may  be  successfully 
grown,  and  also  in  all  the  states  that  border  upon 
Canada,  but  not  equally  well  in  all  parts  of  these. 
Rutabagas  may  also  be  grown  further  south,  but 
not  with  the  same  success,  unless  in  places  with  a 
sufficiently  high  altitude. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — The  rutabaga  crop 
should  always  be  made  a  cleaning  crop,  save  when 


2O4  FORAGE    CROPS. 

the  seed  is  sown  broadcast.  It  may,  therefore,  with 
much  propriety  come  after  a  succession  of  grain 
crops  when  the  land  has  become  weedy  through 
growing  these  crops  upon  it  thus,  as  it  assuredly 
will  become  in  time.  Turnips  will  grow  nicely  in 
overturned  sod  lands  when  the  sod  is  not  too  fresh 
and  dense,  but  such  lands  are  usually  wanted  for 
cereals  because  of  their  clean  condition.  A  grain 
crop  should  follow  the  rutabaga  crop,  and  because 
of  the  clean  condition  of  the  land,  it  would  be  well 
to  sow  grass  seeds  or  clover  seeds,  or  both,  with 
the  grain. 

Soil. — Rutabagas  are  partial  to  a  deep,  moist 
loam  soil,  with  enough  of  sand  in  it  to  keep  it  friable. 
Clay  lands,  light  sands  and  muck  soils  are  ill-adapted 
to  growing  rutabagas.  In  the  first,  they  start  shyly 
and  grow  slowly,  and  the  soil  is  also  hard  to  till.  In 
the  second,  there  is  not  enough  food  or  moisture  to 
sustain  a  good  growth,  unless  much  fertilizer  with 
the  proper  elements  in  it  should  first  be  applied,  and 
in  the  third,  the  rutabagas  make  too  much  growth 
of  neck  and  top  and  too  little  growth  of  bulb-like 
root.  In  some  instances,  but  not  always,  gravelly 
soils  grow  good  crops.  The  gray  deposit  soils  of 
the  higher  Rocky  mountain  valleys  also  produce 
good  crops  of  rutabagas. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  same  preparation  of 
soil  is  wanted  for  a  crop  of  rutabagas  to  be  grown 
for  forage  as  for  a  crop  to  be  stored  for  winter  feed- 
ing. Ordinarily  the  ground  should  be  plowed 
deeply  and  in  the  autumn.  On  retentive  soils  the 
farmyard  manure  should  then  be  applied  and  also 
plowed  under.  But  in  leechy  soils  the  results  will 
be  more  satisfactory  if  the  manure  can  be  spread  on 


ROOT    CROPS.  2O5 

the  land,  plowed  or  unplowed  in  the  autumn,  winter 
or  quite  early  spring.  Decayed  manure  is  preferred, 
but  when  moisture  can  be  relied  on,  manure  in  the 
fresh  form  will  answer  very  well. 

While  various  commercial  fertilizers  have  been 
applied  in  growing  rutabagas,  none  has  been  so 
applied  that  has  given  more  satisfaction  than  ani- 
mal superphosphate.  Sometimes  it  is  strewn  over  the 
land  just  previous  to  the  ridging  of  the  land  for  the 
crop,  and  sometimes  it  is  drilled  in  with  the  seed. 
Whether  the  land  should  be  plowed  again  in  the 
spring,  or  simply  disked,  or  otherwise  cultivated,  will 
depend  upon  conditions.  If  fresh  manure  has  been 
strewn  over  the  land,  the  plow  will  have  to  be  used 
to  bury  it.  When  moisture  can  be  relied  on,  there 
need  be  no  hesitancy  in  plowing  the  land  in  the 
spring,  even  though  plowed  previously  in  the  fall. 
But  with  a  doubtful  supply  of  moisture  spring  plow- 
ing should  be  avoided.  In  any  event,  the  harrow 
cannot  be  used  too  freely  in  preparing  the  land.  It 
is  important  that  soil  on  which  rutabagas  are  to  be 
sown  should  be  of  fine  tilth,  moist  and  firm. 

New  land  on  which  a  crop  of  rutabagas  is  to  be 
broadcasted  should  not  be  deeply  plowed,  as  the 
plants  will  then  be  able  to  feed  more  readily  in  the 
decayed  vegetable  matter.  It  cannot  usually  be 
plowed  too  early  in  the  spring,  nor  can  it  be  made 
too  fine  by  the  use  of  the  harrow  and  roller. 

Solving. — Rutabagas  are  more  commonly  sown 
in  raised  drills,  although  it  may  sometimes  be  pref- 
erable to  sow  them  on  the  level,  as,  for  instance, 
when  the  land  is  liable  to  be  short  of  moisture  dur- 
ing the  growing  season.  The  cultivation  is  more 
easily  done  when  the  drills  are  raised,  but  if  raised 


2O6  FORAGE    CROPS. 

high  the  plants  are  more  liable  to  be  injured  by  dry 
weather.  The  raised  drills  can  best  be  made  with 
a  double  mold-board  plow  and  marker  attached. 
They  may  also  be  made  with  a  single  mold- 
board  plow,  but  they  can  only  be  made  thus 
at  a  serious  loss  of  time  as  compared  with  the 
other  system  of  making  them.  The  distance 
between  the  rows  varies,  say,  from  twenty- four 
inches  to  thirty-six  inches,  but  the  average  distance 
is  about  twenty-six  inches. 

The  seed  may  be  sown  with  a  hand  drill  such 
as  is  used  in  a  garden,  when  only  a  small  quantity 
is  to  be  sown,  but  when  a  large  area  is  to  be  sown 
a  drill  made  for  the  purpose  of  sowing  field  seeds  is 
commonly  used.  It  is  drawn  with  one  horse,  sows 
two  rows  of  seed  at  a  time,  and  a  roller  attached 
firms  the  earth  over  the  seed.  But  when  the 
weather  is  dry  and  the  soil  is  not  liable  to  blow,  it 
will  be  advantageous  to  use  the  heavy  field  roller 
after  the  seed  has  been  sown. 

From  two  to  four  pounds  of  seed  are  sown  per 
acre,  according  to  the  more  or  less  favorable  condi- 
tions of  soil  and  weather.  The  time  for  sowing 
will,  of  course,  vary  much  with  the  locality.  The 
further  north,  as  a  rule,  the  later  should  the  sowing 
be,  but  the  last  half  of  May  and  the  first  half  of  June 
will  pretty  well  cover  the  best  season  for  sowing 
rutabagas. 

When  the  seed  is  broadcasted,  it  is  sown  about 
the  season  already  mentioned,  but  on  new  lands  the 
crop  will  sometimes  be  abundant  when  sown  later. 
It  may  be  sown  by  hand  or  by  the  aid  of  a  hand 
broadcasting  machine,  and  at  the  rate  of,  say,  three 
to  four  pounds  of  the  seed  per  acre.  A  light  har- 


ROOT    CROPS.  207 

row  sometimes,  but  not  always,  followed  by  a  roller, 
may  be  used  in  covering  the  seed. 

Cultivation. — When  rutabagas  are  sown  in 
drills,  the  horse  cultivation  should  begin  as  soon  as 
the  young  plants  can  be  distinctly  traced  in  the  line 
of  the  row.  The  cultivation  ought  to  be  deeper  at 
first  than  later,  and  close  to  the  rows,  but  not  so 
close  as  to  disturb  the  young  plants.  If,  at  the  same 
time,  the  undisturbed  portion  of  the  soil  is  disturbed 
with  the  hoe,  but  without  cutting  out  any  of  the 
plants,  the  weeds  can  never  again  become  so  trouble- 
some along  the  line  of  the  row.  The  cultivation 
given  should  be  frequent,  and  it  ought  to  be  con- 
tinued as  long  as  it  can  be  done  without  breaking 
off  any  considerable  proportion  of  the  leaves  of 
the  rutabagas. 

When  the  plants  have  produced  four  or  five 
leaves,  or  when  they  are  three  to  four  inches  high, 
the  thinning  should  be  done  and  with  much  dispatch. 
The  workman  stands  facing  the  row,  and  with  a 
forward  and  backward  movement  of  the  hoe  strikes 
out  the  plants  that  are  to  be  removed.  The  distance 
between  the  plants  may  be  varied  from  six  to  twelve 
inches,  but  it  is  not  common  to  thin  the  plants  to  a 
greater  distance  than,  say,  nine  to  ten  inches. 
And  they  shouM  be  gone  over  a  second  time  with 
the  hand  hoe,  to  perfect  the  thinning  and  also  the 
destruction  of  the  weeds.  When  rutabagas  are 
broadcasted  they  are  not  given  any  cultivation. 

Pasturing. — Rutabagas  are  more  commonly 
grazed  off  by  sheep.  When  the  crop  has  been  grown 
in  drills  the  sheep  are  usually  inclosed  in  hurdles, 
and  these  are  moved  from  time  to  time,  as  required. 
The  object  of  the  hurdling  is,  first,  to  secure  the 


2O8  FORAGE    CROPS. 

eating  of  the  crop  with  measurable  cleanness,  and, 
second,  to  secure  an  even  fertilization  of  the  land. 
Sometimes  additional  food  is  given  to  the  sheep 
when  they  are  thus  being  grazed,  as,  for  instance, 
oil  cake.  Such  food  aids  in  fattening  the  sheep 
more  quickly  and  also  in  fertilizing  the  land. 

Sheep  may  thus  be  grazed  also  on  the  broad- 
casted rutabagas  when  the  growth  is  sufficiently 
pronounced  to  justify  such  a  course.  Otherwise  it 
may  prove  a  better  way  to  allow  them  to  have  the 
freedom  of  the  whole  field  when  they  are  graz- 
ing it  off. 

TURNIPS. 

The  turnip  (Brassica  rapa)  is  of  many  varie- 
ties. They  are  sometimes  called  fall  turnips, 
because  they  are  more  commonly  fed  in  the 
autumn,  whereas  the  Swedish  varieties  are  more 
commonly  fed  at  a  later  period.  They  are  charac- 
terized by  differences  in  the  size,  shape  and  color  of 
the  bulb,  and  by  the  habit  of  growth  in  the  top. 
Compared  with  rutabagas  they  are  flatter  in  shape, 
they  grow  more  quickly  and  more  above  the  ground 
and  are  less  firm  in  flesh,  hence  they  cannot  be  kept 
so  long  when  harvested.  They  are  more  frequently 
grown  to  provide  forage  than  rutabagas,  because  of 
their  quick  growing  properties,  and  because  it  would 
not  be  so  remunerative  to  harvest  a  crop  that  keeps 
but  for  a  short  time.  Sometimes  they  are  raised 
for  forage  by  sowing  the  seed  in  drills  and  cultivat- 
ing the  plants,  but  more  frequently  they  are  sown 
for  this  purpose  in  the  grain  fields.  They  furnish 
forage  for  all  farm  animals,  but  are  best  adapted  to 
sheep  and  swine. 


ROOT    CROPS.  2O9 

Distribution. — The  distribution  of  fall  turnips 
is  much  the  same  as  that  of  rutabagas  (see  Page 
203).  But  fall  turnips  may  be  grown  further  south 
than  the  former,  especially  when  grown  late  in 
the  season. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — The  place  of  fall  tur- 
nips in  the  rotation  is  essentially  the  same  as  that  of 
rutabagas,  w^hen  they  are  grown  in  drills  and  culti- 
vated (see  Page  203).  Since  they  may  be  sown 
later  in  the  season,  where  the  climate  is  suitable, 
they  may  not  infrequently  be  raised  as  a  "catch 
crop,"  and  after  various  crops,  as,  for  instance,  har- 
vested hay,  grain  or  early  potatoes,  but  never  in  the 
absence  of  moisture. 

Soil. — The  soil  for  fall  turnips  is  about  the 
same  as  that  which  will  be  found  adapted  to  ruta- 
bagas (see  Page  204).  The  former  will  grow  bet- 
ter, relatively,  in  what  may  be  termed  humus  soils, 
hence  they  grow  better  than  rutabagas  in  the  black 
loam  soils  of  the  prairie. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — The  soil  is  usually  pre- 
pared for  fall  turnips  in  the  same  way  as  for  ruta- 
bagas, when  the  crop  is  given  cultivation  (see  Page 
204).  But  when  it  is  thus  grown  as  a  catch  crop, 
much  attention  should  be  given  to  the  retention  of 
moisture  in  the  soil.  When  sown  in  a  grain  crop 
the  preparation  of  the  soil  will  be  the  same,  of 
course,  as  that  given  to  it  in  preparing  it  for 
the  grain. 

Sowing. — When  fall  turnips  are  sown  with  a 
view  to  feeding  them  as  soiling  food  in  the  early 
autumn,  or  to  harvesting  the  crop  for  autumn  feed- 
ing, the  directions  given  for  sowing  rutabagas  will 
equally  apply  to  the  fall  varieties  (see  Page  205). 

*   14 


2 ID  FORAGE    CROPS. 

To  provide  forage  they  are  commonly  sown  with  a 
winter  grain  crop,  as  wheat  or  rye,  or  with  a  spring 
grain  crop,  as  wheat,  oats  or  barley.  But  they 
should  not  ordinarily  be  sown  with  a  grain  crop  that 
has  also  been  sown  with  grass  seeds,  for  the  pastur- 
ing in  the  autumn  would  very  probably  prove  hurt- 
ful to  the  young  grass.  With  a  winter  crop  they 
should  be  sown  early,  so  that  it  will  not  too  much 
shade  the  plants  while  they  are  young  and  tender. 
With  a  spring  crop  they  should  usually  be  sown  at 
the  same  time  as  the  grain,  but  may  be  sown  later. 

From  one  to  two  pounds  of  seed  will  usually 
prove  sufficient  to  sow  per  acre.  On  winter  grain 
crops  the  seed  will  have  to  be  broadcasted.  It  should 
then  be  covered  with  a  harrow.  The  harrowing 
will  also  be  helpful  to  the  grain  when  it  is  judiciously 
done.  On  spring  grain  it  may  be  sown  with  the 
grass-seeder  attachment  of  the  grain  drill  when  it 
has  one,  and  except  on  stiff  soils  the  seed  should  fall 
before  the  drill  tubes.  W^hen  the  seed  is  thus 
dropped  before  the  drill  tubes  it  will  be  sufficiently 
covered.  When  it  is  sown  just  after  the  grain  it 
will,  in  nearly  all  instances,  be  necessary  to  cover  it 
with  the  harrow,  except  on  lumpy  or  cloddy  soils. 
On  these  the  roller  ought  to  be  used  rather  than 
the  harrow. 

If  the  seed  should  be  sown  just  when  the  blades 
of  the  grain  begin  to  appear,  a  light  harrowing  at 
that  time  will  not  only  cover  the  seed,  but  it  will  be 
helpful  to  the  grain,  that  is  to  say,  when  the  soil  is 
not  too  wet  to  be  harrowed. 

Of  the  various  kinds  of  spring  grain,  barley 
makes  the  best  nurse  crop  for  turnips,  because  of  the 
less  dense  growth  which  it  produces,  and  because 


ROOT    CROPS.  211 

of  its  early  removal.  Oats  is  the  most  unsuitable  as 
a  nurse  crop  for  reasons  just  the  opposite. 

The  value  of  the  turnip  crop  for  forage  will 
depend  much  on  the  character  of  the  season  and 
soil.  In  any  case,  the  turnips  are  not  likely  to  grow 
so  as  to  hinder  growth  in  the  grain  crop.  But 
under  favorable  conditions  they  will  come  on  after 
the  crop  is  harvested  and  will  produce  an  excellent 
growth  of  top  and  root.  In  very  dry  seasons  they 
may  not  give  any  return,  but  in  turnip  growing  sec- 
tions it  is  seldom,  indeed,  that  the  crop  will  not  be 
found  worth  more  than  the  seed  and  the  cost  of 
sowing  it. 

Pasturing. — The  sheep  or  other  live  stock  that 
are  to  be  pastured  on  the  turnips  may  be  allowed 
freedom  of  access  to  the  pastures  after  the  first  two 
or  three  days.  And  if  they  can  have  access  to  other 
grass  pasture,  the  outcome  will  be  still  further  satis- 
factory, for  the  danger  of  an  unduly  lax  condition 
of  the  bowels  is  less  likely  to  occur.  The  pasturing 
should  be  completed  before  the  weather  becomes 
really  cold,  for  turnips  freeze  much  more  easily  than 
rutabagas,  and  when  hard  frozen  they  should  not  be 
eaten  by  the  stock. 

Observations. — i.  When  rape  and  fall  turnips 
are  thus  grown  together,  the  combination  is  an 
excellent  one  for  sheep.  The  seed  of  each  may  be 
sown  in  equal  quantities. 

2.  When  fall  turnips  are  thus  sown  with  grain, 
the  plowing  of  the  land  must  usually  be  deferred 
until  late  in  the  season,  and  this  is  so  far  an  objec- 
tion to  the  system. 

3.  When  the  turnips  grow  to  a  large  size,  as 
they  sometimes  do,  the  largest  are  harvested  and 


212  FORAGE    CROPS. 

stored    away    for   late    feeding   before    the    graz- 
ing begins. 

ARTICHOKES. 

But  few  plants  have  been  grown  upon  the  farm 
with  reference  to  which  opinions  differ  so  widely. 
Many  of  those  who  have  grown  the  Jerusalem  arti- 
choke (Helianthus  tuberosus)  speak  very  highly  of 
it,  more  especially  as  a  food  for  swine.  Others, 
again,  look  upon  it  as  a  nuisance  on  the  farm,  owing 
to  the  difficulty  they  have  met  with  in  cleaning  the 
land  of  the  plants.  This  difference  in  opinion  may 
arise,  first,  from  a  difference  in  soils;  second,  from 
a  difference  in  the  methods  of  growing  them ;  third, 
from  a  difference  in  the  varieties  grown;  fourth, 
from  a  difference  in  the  method  of  handling  the 
crop  after  it  has  been  grown ;  and,  fifth  from  a  dif- 
ference in  handling  the  land  when  ridding  it  of  the 
artichokes.  That  there  is  a  place  for  the  artichoke, 
especially  as  a  forage  for  swine,  should  not  any 
longer  be  questioned.  The  testimony  sustaining 
this  view  comes  from  so  many  reputable  men  in 
various  states,  and  from  so  many  states,  that  it  is 
not  to  be  gainsaid. 

The  artichoke  is  a  tuber  which  bears  consider- 
able resemblance  to  the  potato,  both  in  appearance 
and  habits  of  growth.  The  tops,  which  frequently 
grow  to  a  hight  of  six  or  eight  feet,  closely  resemble 
the  wild  sunflower.  The  flowers  are  yellow,  and 
seed  is  produced,  though  not  so  plentifully  as  by 
the  sunflower.  The  tubers  are  more  elongated  and 
irregular  in  shape  than  those  of  the  potato.  They 
cluster  more  closely  around  the  parent  stem  and  yet 
they  throw  out  runners  at  the  same  time  which  bear 


ROOT    CROPS.  213 

small  tubers.  This  it  is  that  gives  them  so  much 
power  to  completely  occupy  the  land,  since  these 
small  tubers,  if  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground,  will 
throw  up  fresh  plants.  The  tuber  is  less  firm  than 
that  of  the  potato.  The  plant  is  extremely  hardy, 
so  much  so  that  it  may  be  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
ground  all  winter  without  being  harvested. 

This  plant  is  grown  for  table  use  and  for  dif- 
ferent kinds  of  live  stock,  to  which  it  is  variously 
fed.  Its  highest  value  comes  from  growing  it  for 
swine,  and  with  a  view  to  having  the  swine  harvest 
the  crop  in  the  autumn  or  in  the  spring,  but  more 
especially  in  the  autumn.  The  tops  are  sometimes 
fed  as  fodder  to  horses  and  cattle,  but  where  other 
fodders  grow  freely,  it  would  not  be  Vise  to  set  a 
high  value  on  such  fodder. 

The  strong  points  in  favor  of  the  artichoke 
crop  are  found,  first,  in  the  large  amount  of  health- 
ful food  which  they  furnish  for  swine;  as  high  as 
700  bushels  per  acre  are  reported  by  farmers  who 
have  grown  them  for  years,  but  the  average  yield 
would  probably  run  from  300  to  400  bushels  per 
acre,  and  in  many  instances  it  would  be  less  than 
these  amounts;  second,  in  the  fact  that  the  swine 
may  harvest  them;  third,  in  their  immunity  from 
injury  by  frost,  especially  while  not  yet  harvested; 
fourth,  in  the  fact  that  they  can  be  planted  fall  and 
spring;  and,  fifth,  in  the  number  of  successive  crops 
that  they  will  produce  from  one  planting  under  cer- 
tain conditions  of  management.  As  many  as  seven 
successive  crops  have  been  grown  without  any  inter- 
ruption, and  under  some  conditions  the  growing  of 
these  successive  crops  could  be  further  extended. 

The   chief  objections  to   their  growth   arise, 


214  FORAGE    CROPS. 

first,  from  the  difficulty  sometimes  found  in  ridding 
the  land  of  them,  and,  second,  from  the  impaction 
of  certain  lands  which  follows  harvesting  them  by 
swine  when  those  lands  are  unduly  moist.  These 
objections  will  be  further  considered  elsewhere. 

There  are  several  varieties  of  the  artichoke. 
But  two,  however,  would  seem  to  have  been  exten- 
sively grown  on  this  continent.  These  are  the  com- 
mon Jerusalem  artichoke  and  the  French  Improved. 
The  first  is  probably  the  hardier  of  the  two.  The 
second  is  more  refined,  and  under  favorable  condi- 
tions may  be  expected  to  produce  larger  crops,  and 
it  is  more  easy  of  eradication. 

Distribution. — But  few  good  plants  are  of  wider 
distribution  than  the  artichoke.  There  are  few 
places  in  the  United  States  or  Canada  where  the  soil 
can  be  tilled  in  which  this  plant  cannot  be  grown  suc- 
cessfully. And  yet  there  are  certain  areas  with 
much  better  adaptation  to  its  growth  than  other 
areas.  As  it  is  a  very  hardy  plant  it  can  be  grown 
on  high  altitudes,  and  yet  if  planted  sufficiently 
early  in  the  season  it  can  be  grown  in  the 
warmest  valleys. 

In  considering  the  highest  adaptation  in  this 
plant  it  is  necessary  to  bear  several  things  in  mind. 
These  are,  first,  the  soils  and  climates  in  which  it 
will  grow  most  readily;  second,  the  soils  in  which 
it  can  be  most  easily  harvested  by  swine ;  third,  the 
soils  that  will  receive  the  least  injury  from  harvest- 
ing the  crop  by  swine  in  the  fall  or  spring;  and, 
fourth,  the  duration  of  the  season  for  harvesting. 
It  is  very  evident,  therefore,  that  localities  with  con- 
ditions for  producing  the  largest  crops  in  the 
abstract  are  not  of  necessity  the  best  in  all-round 


ROOT    CROPS.  215 

adaptability.  For  instance,  though  it  were  possible 
to  produce  a  larger  crop  of  artichokes  in  the  soils 
around  Winnipeg  than  in  those  around  Kansas  City, 
it  would  not  follow  that  it  would  be  more  profitable 
to  grow  artichokes  as  forage  for  swine  in  the  former 
soils  than  in  the  latter.  The  climate  of  Winnipeg 
would  lock  the  artichokes  in  the  ground  for  five  to 
six  months  in  the  year,  while  the  climate  of  Kansas 
City  would  not  so  lock  them  for  more  than  a  few 
weeks.  But  for  a  crop  to  be  dug  and  stored  for 
winter,  the  former  soils  might  be  more  suitable  than 
the  latter.  Highest  adaptation,  therefore,  is  to  be 
sought  for  in  soils  that  will  grow  maximum  crops, 
and  in  a  climate  where  they  may  be  harvested  by 
swine  during  a  large  portion  of  the  season  which 
follows  the  maturing  of  the  crop.  And  it  will  prob- 
ably be  found  in  the  alluvial  lands  of  the  Mississippi 
and  its  tributaries,  but  not  very  near  the  sources  of 
these  streams. 

Place  in  the  Rotation. — Artichokes  may  come 
after  any  kind  of  a  crop,  but  since  they  should  be 
cultivated  much  the  same  as  corn,  they  should  natu- 
rally be  given  the  place  of  a  cleaning  crop.  How- 
ever, because  of  the  difficulty  that  is  frequently 
found  in  ridding  the  land  of  artichokes,  they  should 
always  be  followed  by  some  kind  of  cultivated  crop, 
as  corn,  for  instance.  But  a  crop  that  could  be 
planted  later,  as  rape,  would  be  even  better,  as  a 
longer  period  would  then  be  given  for  cleaning  the 
land  before  sowing  the  crop  which  follows  the 
artichokes. 

When  artichokes  are  grown  as  swine  forage, 
however,  it  will  frequently  be  found  advantageous 
to  grow  them  during  successive  seasons  on  the  same 


2l6  FORAGE    CROPS. 

piece  of  land  for  at  least  a  limited  term  of  years. 
When  thus  grown,  replanting  will  not  be  necessary, 
and  the  labor  of  cleaning  out  the  artichokes  for  the 
next  crop  in  the  rotation  will  be  lessened  in  propor- 
tion as  the  term  of  growing  the  successive  crops  of 
artichokes  is  extended. 

Soil. — A  soil  that  will  grow  artichokes  in 
excellent  form  should  be  deep,  moist,  friable,  free 
from  stagnant  water  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and 
well  filled  with  vegetable  matter.  Black  loams, 
therefore,  and  muck  soils  will  be  found  very  suitable. 
Good  crops  may  be  grown  on  sandy  soils  in  moist 
seasons,  providing  they  have  first  been  properly 
enriched,  but  not  when  the  opposite  conditions  pre- 
vail. The  sandy  and  alluvial  soils  of  the  Rocky 
mountain  region  should  grow  excellent  artichokes 
when  irrigated.  Strong  and  even  hard  clays  may 
produce  good  crops,  but  artichokes  should  not  be 
grown  on  such  lands  as  forage,  since  the  swine  can- 
not dig  them  except  at  the  expenditure  of  too  much 
labor,  and  if  they  are  allowed  to  search  for  them  in 
clay  land  when  it  is  wet,  it  would  become  so 
impacted  that  for  a  time  subsequent  to  such  foraging 
it  would  be  impossible  to  cultivate  it  without 
great  labor. 

Preparing  the  Soil. — In  preparing  the  land  for 
artichokes,  much  will  depend  upon  the  season  of 
the  year  when  the  sets  are  to  be  planted.  When 
planted  late  in  the  fall  it  is  not  absolutely  necessary 
to  have  the  soil  in  tilth  as  fine  as  for  spring  planting. 
When  planted  in  the  spring  the  tilth  should  be  fine. 
In  the  moist  states  of  the  east  the  aim  should  be  to 
have  the  soil  lie  loosely  upon  itself,  but  in  the  more 
dry  prairie  soils  the  aim  should  be  to  have  the  land 


ROOT    CROPS.  217 

firm.  In  either  case,  the  plowing  should  be  deep. 
Manure  may  be  plowed  in  or  put  upon  the  surface 
before  planting  the  crop  or  after  planting,  according 
to  conditions. 

Solving  or  Planting.  —  Artichokes  may  be 
planted  in  the  fall  or  in  the  spring.  When  planted 
in  the  fall,  late  planting  will  usually  be  found  pref- 
erable, as  then  the  winter  frosts  will  not  cut  off  the 
young  growth.  This  would  be  seriously  injurious 
to  the  plants  when  young.  But  in  the  spring  the 
planting  should  be  early,  considerably  earlier  than 
would  be  safe  in  planting  potatoes.  When  planted 
in  the  fall,  whole  tubers  ought  to  be  used.  When 
planted  in  the  spring,  cut  sets  will  answer,  though 
perhaps  not  quite  so  well  as  medium-sized  tubers 
planted  whole.  Deep  planting  is  preferable  to 
shallow  planting,  since  it  makes  possible  more 
thorough  cultivation  before  the  plants  are  up,  and  it 
further  removes  the  feeding  ground  of  the  roots 
from  the  influences  of  surface  evaporation. 

The  planting  may  be  done,  first,  by  the  ordinary 
potato  planter,  or,  second,  by  making  furrows  or 
trenches  with  the  plow  at  suitable  distances  and 
dropping  the  artichokes  in  these  by  hand.  These 
furrows  will  vary  from  three  to  six  inches  in  depth, 
according  to  conditions.  The  trenches  may  be  cov- 
ered with  the  plow  or  the  harrow,  according  to 
attendant  circumstances.  In  slough  lands  that  are 
dry  enough  for  artichokes  it  may  very  well  serve  the 
purpose  to  drop  the  artichokes  in  certain  of  the  fur- 
rows while  the  land  is  being  plowed. 

The  distance  between  the  rows  and  also  between 
the  plants  in  the  row  varies,  but  the  rows  should  not 
be  nearer  to  each  other  than  three  feet,  and  the 


2l8  FORAGE    CROPS. 

plants  in  the  line  of  the  row  should  not  be  nearer 
than  eighteen  inches.  A  greater  distance  between 
the  plants  will  probably  provide  the  largest  yields, 
unless  in  soils  deficient  in  fertility. 

Cultivation. — The  first  year  the  cultivation  of 
artichokes  should  be  thorough  during  all  the  early 
part  of  the  season.  The  first  harrowing  should  be 
given  a  few  days  after  the  artichokes  are  planted. 
The  subsequent  har rowings  should  ordinarily  be 
from  two  to  four  in  number,  and  they  ought  to  be 
made  before  the  plants  reach  the  night  of,  say,  six 
inches.  The  horse  cultivation  should  then  begin. 
It  ought  to  be  given  frequently,  and  it  is  important 
that  it  shall  be  shallow  so  as  not  to  break  the  hori- 
zontal rootlets  of  the  plants. 

When  the  crop  is  to  be  grown  during  successive 
years  on  the  same  land  without  replanting,  the  soil 
should  be  carefully  harrowed,  or  otherwise  leveled, 
every  spring  before  other  cultivation  is  attempted. 
As  soon  as  the  young  plants  appear,  they  should 
be  all  cut  out  with  the  cultivator,  except  such  as  are 
allowed  to  remain  in  narrow  strips  about  three  feet 
apart  to  form  the  rows.  The  cultivator  should 
then  be  made  to  cross  the  rows  likewise,  but 
in  the  second  instance  the  rows  may  be  left 
somewhat  closer.  The  artichokes  will  then  grow 
at  the  corners  of  squares,  or  of  rectangles,  hence 
the  cultivator  may  be  used  so  as  to  run  in  vari- 
ous directions.  The  harrow  will  probably  be  the 
next  implement  to  use,  that  the  weeds  around 
the  plants  may  be  killed.  Horse  cultivation  should 
then  follow,  as  previously  described. 

Pasturing  or  Foraging. — The  management  of 
the  foraging  of  this  crop  will  vary  with  variations  in 


ROOT    CROPS.  219 

climate.  In  any  climate,  ordinarily,  it  ought  to 
begin  as  soon  as  the  crop  has  matured  for  the  season. 
But  in  cool  climates  it  is  especially  important  that 
it  shall  begin  early,  for  as  soon  as  the  ground  freezes 
the  foraging  must  cease  until  the  following  spring. 
It  may  then  be  resumed  if  the  ground  is  not  too 
moist,  but  generally  the  season  for  spring  foraging 
is  very  brief,  as  the  value  of  the  tubers  for  feeding 
is  much  impaired  after  they  begin  to  grow. 

When  swine  are  foraging  on  artichokes,  they 
may  be  given  access  to  them  at  will.  But  when 
practicable  it  will  also  be  better  to  allow  them  the 
option  of  feeding  on  other  pasture,  on  the  principle 
that  a  variety  of  suitable  foods  is  beneficial.  Whether 
they  should  be  given  additional  grain  food  will 
depend  upon  the  age  of  the  pigs  and  the  object 
sought  in  feeding  them.  Young  pigs  should  be 
given  additional  grain  food,  as  shorts,  for  instance, 
but  brood  sows  will  not  usually  require  a  grain  por- 
tion. The  exercise  which  the  sows  get  in  foraging 
for  the  artichokes  is  very  beneficial  to  them,  and 
more  especially  when  they  are  pregnant.  Pigs  that 
are  being  made  ready  for  fattening  will  do  well  on 
artichokes  supplemented  with  grain,  especially  corn. 
But  swine  that  are  being  fattened  should  not  be 
required  to  labor  so  hard  for  their  food.  However, 
when  they  have  been  reared  chiefly  on  a  corn  diet, 
such  exercise,  when  not  excessive,  will  tend  to  keep 
them  in  a  healthy  condition. 

Observations. — i.  When  artichokes  are  grown 
for  successive  years  on  the  same  land,  well  rotted 
manure  may  be  advantageously  applied  to  them  by 
incorporating  the  manure  with  the  soil  while  the 
land  is  being  leveled  in  the  spring. 


22O  FORAGE    CROPS. 

2.  In  preparing  the  soil  for  a  crop  which  is  to 
come  after  the  artichokes,  the  plowing  of  the  land 
should  be  deferred   in   the    spring   until   the  more 
advanced  of  the  volunteer  plants  have  reached  the 
hight  of  twelve  inches  or  more.     If  the  plowing  is 
done  with  due  care,  many  of  the  artichokes  that 
thus  sprouted  will  die.     The  cultivation  given  to 
the  crop  that  is  then  planted,  along  with  some  hand 
hoeing,  should  destroy  the  artichokes  in  a  single 
season. 

3.  Owing  to  the  great  yield  that  artichokes 
are  capable  of  producing,  it  is  not  necessary  to  plant 
a  large  area  unless  where  the  herd  of  swine  kept  is 
numerically  large. 


CHAPTER  XL 

MISCELLANEOUS     PLANTS. 

The  plants  which  have  been  discussed  in  the 
preceding  chapters  have  all  been  found  more  or  less 
useful  in  providing  pasture  or  forage  for  domestic 
animals,  although  experience  in  growing  some  of 
them  for  such  a  purpose  has  not  been  at  all  extensive. 
In  addition  to  these  there  are  a  number  of  plants, 
the  value  of  which  in  providing  pasture  has  not  been 
proved  on  this  continent  at  all,  or  if  so  proved,  it  has 
been  in  only  limited  areas,  although  elsewhere,  as  in 
some  parts  of  Europe,  for  instance,  they  have  been 
found  more  or  less  valuable  in  providing  pasture. 
Prominent  among  these  are  the  following :  The  flat 
pea,  sweet  clover,  yellow  clover,  Japan  clover,  sain- 
foin, spurry,  kale,  wrhite  mustard,  lupines,  sacaline, 
peanuts,  the  velvet  bean,  beggar's  ticks  and  Austra- 
lian saltbush.  Further  experience  is  required  in  test- 
ing these  plants  on  our  continent  before  it  would  be 
possible  to  pronounce  with  even  approximate  cor- 
rectness as  to  their  value  in  providing  pasture  or 
other  food  for  live  stock.  But  they  should  be  tested 
by  the  experiment  stations  rather  than  by  the  farm- 
ers, since  all  experimentation  is  more  or  less  costly. 
This  is  a  work  which  the  experiment  stations  are 
always  ready  and  willing  to  take  up,  and  carry  on 
until  tangible  results  are  obtained.  One  object  sought 
in  referring  to  them  here  is  to  call  attention  to  the 

221 


222  FORAGE    CROPS. 

fact  that  their  value  in  providing  forage  has  not 
yet  been  determined. 

THE    FLAT    PEA. 

The  flat  pea  (Lathyrus  sylvestrls)  is  a 
legume.  It  is  perennial  in  its  habit  of  growth.  In 
appearance  it  bears  no  little  resemblance  to  the  "grass 
pea,"  which  has  been  grown  for  many  years  in  some 
sections  of  the  United  States  and  Canada.  The 
seed  is  tardy  in  germinating.  The  plants  grow 
slowly  for  a  time.  The  first  year  the  growth  varies 
from  six  to  twenty-four  inches,  according  to  the 
nature  of  the  soil,  climate  and  season.  The  next 
year  and  subsequently  they  should  furnish  from  one 
to  two  or  three  cuttings,  according  to  the  conditions. 
Complaints  have  been  made  that  the  plant  is  a  shy 
bearer  of  seed. 

The  flat  pea  is  certainly  a  hardy  plant.  When 
once  established  it  will  endure  much  drouth.  At 
the  Ontario  experiment  station  at  Guelph,  it  with- 
stood the  cold  of  winter  without  apparent  injury. 
It  has  also  lived  through  several  winters  in  the  state 
of  Michigan.  At  the  University  experiment  station 
of  Minnesota,  however,  it  has  in  some  instances  suc- 
cumbed the  first  winter  when  planted  in  exposed 
situations.  As  to  its  duration,  claims  have  been 
made  for  it  that  sound  extravagant.  It  has  been 
affirmed  that  the  plants  will  live  indefinitely,  or  at 
least  from  fifty  to  sixty  years.  At  the  Michigan 
experiment  station,  41,185  pounds  of  green  food  per 
acre  were  obtained  from  two  cuttings  in  one  year. 
But  it  was  found  that  the  stock  consumed  the  food 
with  reluctance,  whether  fed  in  the  green  or  the  dry 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS.  223 

state.  Of  course  if  this  experience  should  prove  gen- 
eral there  will  be  no  place  for  the  plant  in  the  agricul- 
ture of  this  country,  but  conclusions  should  not  be 
drawn  hastily  with  reference  to  the  palatability  of 
fodder  plants  when  but  newly  introduced.  The 
taste  of  domestic  animals  is  quite  susceptible  of  cul- 
tivation. The  limited  quantities  grown  by  the 
author  in  Ontario  were  apparently  relished  by  the 
bovines  to  which  they  were  fed  in  the  green  form. 

It  is  probable,  however,  that  the  flat  pea  will 
not  become  greatly  popular  in  areas  well  adapted  to 
the  growth  of  clover,  alfalfa  and  vetches.  Nor  is  it 
likely  soon  to  find  a  prominent  place  in  regions 
where  the  rainfall  is  sufficient  in  a  normal  season  to 
meet  the  needs  of  ordinary  farm  crops.  If  there  is 
a  place  for  this  plant  in  the  agriculture  of  the  United 
States,  it  is  likely  to  be  found  in  the  dry  areas  of  the 
southwest  and  on  lands  in  these  which  cannot  be 
irrigated.  And  it  is  also  probable  that  it  will  be 
found  more  valuable,  relatively,  in  providing  pas- 
ture for  sheep  than  in  growing  soiling  food.  But 
experience  with  reference  to  pasturing  the  flat  pea 
would  seem  to  be  wholly  wanting  in  America. 

Because  of  the  slow  growth  of  the  seeds  of  the 
flat  pea,  it  has  been  recommended  to  start  the  seed 
under  favored  conditions,  as  in  a  bed  prepared  for 
the  purpose,  and  then  to  transplant  into  rows  where 
the  plants  are  to  remain.  Such  a  process,  however, 
would  involve  so  much  labor  that  it  is  not  likely  e^er 
to  come  into  general  favor.  Nor  does  it  seem  nec- 
essary, where  the  preparation  of  the  ground  for  the 
seed  has  been  given  sufficient  care. 

The  soil  for  this  plant  ought  to  be  porous  and 
free  from  stagnant  water  in  both  soil  and  subsoil, 


224  FORAGE    CROPS. 

since  it  feeds  deeply.  It  should  be  so  prepared  that 
the  weeds  will  not  be  superabundant  while  the  plants 
are  yet  young.  The  seed  should  be  sown  in  rows 
from  two  and  one-half  to  three  feet  distant.  The 
ground  must  be  kept  free  from  weeds  the  first  sea- 
son by  using  the  cultivator  and  also  the  hoe.  And 
it  is  recommended  that  cultivation  should  also  be 
given  during  subsequent  seasons.  But  more  expe- 
rience is  required  before  pronouncing  definitely  on 
the  necessity  for  such  cultivation,  and  also  on  the 
benefits  accruing  therefrom.  There  are  good  reasons 
for  continuing  experimentation  with  this  plant,  espe- 
cially in  the  southwest  and  south. 

SWEET  CLOVER. 

Sweet  clover  (Melilotus  alba)  is  so  named, 
doubtless,  from  the  fragrance  of  the  odor  which 
characterizes  it.  It  is  also  frequently  called  Bokhara 
clover.  The  two  species,  Melilotus  alba,  and  yel- 
low sweet  clover  (Melilotus  officinalis)  are  closely 
allied,  but  the  blossom  of  the  former  is  light  colored, 
while  that  of  the  latter  is  yellow. 

Sweet  clover  is  a  strong,  vigorous  growing 
biennial.  It  is  branched  and  upright  in  its  habit  of 
growth.  It  is  one  of  the  most  hardy  plants  of  the 
clover  family.  When  once  firmly  rooted  it  has 
great  power  to  withstand  drouth  and  heat,  and  it 
can  also  endure  low  temperatures.  Being  a  raven- 
ous feeder  it  is  able  to  maintain  itself  in  soils  too 
poor  to  sustain  other  species  of  the  clover  family. 
The  writer  has  succeeded  in  growing  sweet  clover  on 
a  vacant  lot  in  St.  Paul,  from  which  several  feet  of 
the  surface  soil  had  been  removed,  insomuch  that 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS.  22$ 

only  sand  and  gravel  remained.  Moreover,  it  is  a 
legume,  and  one  which  has  much  power  to  renovate 
soils.  A  plant,  therefore,  which  is  possessed  of  such 
powers  should  not  be  looked  upon  as  worthless. 
That  it  is  so  is  the  popular  idea.  It  has  even  been 
looked  upon  as  a  weed,  and  some  countries  and 
states  have  included  sweet  clover  in  the  list  of  pro- 
scribed noxious  weeds. 

But  sweet  clover  has  been  grown  to  some 
extent  to  provide  hay  for  live  stock  in  the  cured 
form,  and  also  to  provide  pasture.  And  it  has  been 
grown  to  furnish  food  for  bees  when  it  is  in  bloom. 
It  has  been  grown  for  all  these  uses  in  the  south, 
more  particularly  in  the  states  of  the  lower  Missis- 
sippi basin.  For  providing  hay  it  is  not  very  suit- 
able, for  the  reasons,  first,  that  it  is  woody  and 
coarse  in  character;  second,  that  it  is  difficult  to 
cure ;  and,  third,  that  it  is  not  much  relished  by  live 
stock.  They  do  not  care  to  eat  it  when  they  can 
get  a  sufficiency  of  other  food,  as  corn,  sorghum, 
or  other  clovers.  As  a  food  for  bees  it  is  excellent, 
and  if  a  part  of  the  plot  or  field  is  cut  before  coming 
into  bloom,  the  season  of  bloom  will  be  much  pro- 
longed. It  is  also  sown  along  the  sloping  embank- 
ments and  the  sides  of  railway  cuttings.  The  object 
sought  is  to  prevent  these  from  washing,  and  it  has 
proved  highly  serviceable  for  the  purpose. 

Sweet  clover  has  not  been  much  grown  for 
pasture,  but  for  such  a  use  it  may  yet  prove  to  be  of 
value.  When  sheep  have  access  to  a  variety  of 
grasses  they  will  probably  pass  sweet  clover  by,  even 
when  it  is  young  and  tender.  But  if  confined  to 
such  a  pasture  when  it  first  begins  to  grow  they 
would  soon  begin  to  crop  it  down.  To  force  ani- 
15 


226  FORAGE    CROPS. 

mals  thus  to  eat  food  under  constraint  is  not  good 
for  them,  but  thus  it  is  that  in  some  instances  sheep 
have  to  be  confined  on  rape  and  forced  to  eat  it 
through  sheer  hunger.  In  a  short  time  they  become 
very  fond  of  the  rape.  So  likewise  they  may  be 
taught  to  eat  sweet  clover.  Of  course  where  other 
and  better  kinds  of  clover  will  grow,  it  would  not  be 
wise  to  trouble  with  sweet  clover.  But  in  the  semi- 
arid  belt  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains,  and  in  the 
poor,  sandy  soils  of  the  south,  it  may  yet  be  found 
that  an  important  mission  awaits  this  plant,  first,  in 
growing  a  crop  that  will  renovate  the  soil  when 
plowed  under  and  increase  its  power  to  hold  mois- 
ture ;  second,  in  furnishing  food  for  bees ;  and,  third, 
in  providing  pasture.  Hay  should  be  sought  from 
it  the  first  year  rather  than  the  second. 

Sweet  clover  can  only  be  sown  in  the  spring  or 
summer  in  very  cold  latitudes,  but  in  those  that  are 
mild  it  can  be  sown  in  the  autumn  or  spring,  prefer- 
ably the  former.  Usually  not  less  than  fifteen 
pounds  of  the  seed  is  sown  to  the  acre.  In  the  south 
it  is  frequently  sown  on  the  surface  of  stubble  land 
after  the  crop  has  been  harvested,  and  when  thus 
sown  it  is  simply  covered  by  the  harrow.  If  sweet 
clover  is  kept  from  blossoming,  the  land  will  soon 
be  freed  from  it  when  it  is  so  desired.  Although 
sweet  clover  seeds  profusely,  the  high  price  of  the 
seed  at  the  present  time  stands  much  in  the  way  of 
extending  its  growth. 

YELLOW   CLOVER. 

Yellow  clover  (Medicago  lupulina)  is  sometimes 
called  black  medic.  At  other  times  it  is  spoken  of 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS. 

as  trefoil,  but  this  term  is  not  sufficiently  specific. 
Nor  is  it  to  be  confounded  with  hop  clover  (Trifo- 
linm  procumbent),  although  there  is  much  of  resem- 
blance between  the  two  plants. 

Yellow  clover  is  perennial  and  recumbent  in  its 
habit  of  growth.  It  does  not  make  sufficient  growth 
to  render  it  of  much  value  for  hay.  But  as  a  pas- 
ture plant  it  is,  to  some  extent  at  least,  deserving  of 
a  place  in  our  agriculture.  It  bears  seed  profusely, 
and  as  the  season  of  bloom  is  prolonged  when  it  is 
pastured,  this  plant  has  much  power  to  re-seed  itself 
and  therefore  to  maintain  its  hold  upon  land  where 
it  has  been  grown. 

Yellow  clover  has  special  adaptation  for  soils 
well  supplied  with  lime.  On  such  soils  it  has  in 
some  localities  almost  assumed  the  character  of  a 
weed.  But  this  can  only  happen  in  rainy  climates. 
It  will  also  grow  in  gravelly  soils  where  some  of  the 
other  varieties  of  clover  would  fail.  The  author 
has  met  with  it  growing  in  great  luxuriance  in  a 
semi-wild  condition  on  the  coast  of  Puget  Sound. 
It  also  grows  freely  in  several  of  the  northern  states 
and  of  the  provinces  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada 
that  lie  eastward  from  Lake  Huron.  And  it  is 
probable  that  it  may  be  grown  with  more  or  less 
success  in  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  tillable  portions  of 
the  United  States  and  Canada. 

Where  other  and  superior  kinds  of  clover  will 
grow  freely,  it  is  not  necessary  to  give  much  atten- 
tion to  yellow  clover.  But  in  permanent  pastures, 
even  among  superior  sorts,  it  has  a  place,  since  it 
comes  on  early  in  the  season  and  grows  vigorously, 
and  it  is  fine  and  leafy  when  young.  But  as  sum- 
mer advances  it  becomes  woody  and  ceases  to  grow. 


228  FORAGE    CROPS. 

As  a  pasture  plant  it  is  not  the  equal  of  white  clover 
(Trifolium  repens),  but  it  may  be  able  to  grow  in 
some  situations  where  white  clover  will  not  succeed. 
The  seed  of  yellow  clover  is  relatively  cheap, 
hence  to  add  one  or  two  pounds  of  the  seed  per  acre 
to  a  mixture  to  be  sown  for  permanent  pasture  will 
not  add  much  to  the  whole  cost  of  the  seed.  When 
sown  alone,  from  three  to  five  pounds  of  seed  would 
probably  be  ample.  But  it  should  only  be  thus  sown 
to  provide  seed.  The  seed  may  be  sown  by  hand  or 
with  some  form  of  hand  seeder,  and  covered  with  a 
light  harrow  or  a  roller,  according  to  the  character 
of  the  soil.  When  not  sown  to  provide  seed  it  ought 
to  be  made  a  part  of  a  grass  mixture  rather  than 
the  sole  crop.  In  such  instances  one  to  two  pounds 
of  seed  per  acre  should  suffice. 

JAPAN   CLOVER. 

Japan  clover  (Lespedeza  striata)  is  growing  in 
favor  in  the  south.  It  is  said  to  have  been  first  intro- 
duced into  the  United  States  from  China,  and  has 
become  prominent  since  the  time  of  the  civil  war.  It 
would  seem  to  be  adapted  only  to  southern  condi- 
tions and  will  probably  never  have  a  place  among 
the  pasture  crops  of  the  northern  half  of  the  United 
States  or  in  Canada.  It  has  been  grown  with  no 
little  success  in  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  Gulf  states. 

Japan  clover  is  a  low  growing  annual.  On 
lands  low  in  fertility  it  can  only  grow  to  the  hight 
of  a  few  inches,  but  on  rich  soils  otherwise  suitable 
it  sometimes  reaches  the  hight  of  sixteen  inches  or 
more.  The  leaves  are  triplicate.  The  flowers  are 
numerous  and  blue  in  color.  The  plants  produce 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS.  229 

seed  abundantly.  On  lands  not  too  foul  with  weeds, 
it  is  able  to  maintain  itself  for  years  by  the  process 
of  self-seeding,  if  not  kept  grazed  too  closely  or  har- 
vested too  early  in  the  season.  But  if  harvesting  is 
deferred  until  some  of  the  seed  scatters,  the  feeding 
value  of  the  hay  will  be  lessened. 

As  Japan  clover  is  a  legume,  its  growth  is  of 
course  beneficial  to  the  land.  It  is  useful  as  a  pas- 
ture crop  and  also  in  producing  hay.  The  taste 
resembles  that  of  white  clover,  and  it  is  relished  by 
live  stock.  Although  it  responds  to  cultivation  it 
grows  in  a  wild  state  in  some  parts  of  Louisiana. 
It  starts  late  in  the  season  and  has  no  little  power 
to  withstand  the  influences  of  dry  weather.  It  is 
what  may  be  termed  a  summer  or  an  autumn  crop. 

In  preparing  the  soil  for  Japan  clover  it  ought 
to  be  given  sufficient  cultivation  to  clean  it  on  and 
near  the  surface,  otherwise  on  rich  lands  the  weeds 
will  greatly  injure  the  growth  of  the  clover.  On 
poor  land  that  is  foul,  the  clover  will  better  resist 
the  encroachments  of  weeds  than  on  rich  land  thus 
infested.  It  has  some  adaptation  for  hard,  dry, 
clay  soils,  but  will  grow  better  on  soils  where  the 
conditions  are  more  favorable.  As  this  plant  does 
not  grow  until  the  weather  becomes  warm,  nothing 
can  be  gained  by  sowing  it  earlier.  For  pasture  or 
for  hay,  twelve  to  fifteen  pounds  of  seed  are  sown 
per  acre.  Since  it  is  a  summer  rather  than  a  spring 
plant,  the  pasture  which  it  furnishes  is  seasonable. 

SAINFOIN. 

Sainfoin  (Onobrychis  sativa)  is  sometimes 
called  esparcette  or  asperset.  The  German  spelling 


230  FORAGE    CROPS. 

is  esparsette.  It  is  a  legume  of  the  clover  family, 
which  has  special  adaptation  for  limestone  and  dry, 
chalky  soils.  It  has  been  grown  in  the  south  of 
England,  in  France  and  in  other  countries  of  Europe 
for  several  centuries.  It  has  been  made  to  render 
the  best  of  service  in  providing  pasture  for  sheep 
and  soiling  food  and  fodder  for  cattle  and  horses. 
In  the  south  of  England  it  is  considered  indispen- 
sable on  many  sheep  farms,  notwithstanding  the 
excellence  of  the  turnip  crops  that  are  grown 
on  these. 

Sainfoin  is  a  vigorous  growing  plant.  It  is 
branched  and  spreading.  Its  flowers  are  numerous 
and  of  a  showy  red  color.  It  will  frequently  pro- 
duce two  or  more  cuttings  of  hay  or  of  seed,  and 
several  cuttings  of  soiling  food,  in  a  single  sea- 
son. But  it  is  seldom  advisable  to  seek  two 
crops  of  seed  in  one  season,  since  the  first  crop  does 
not  yield  nearly  so  well  as  the  second.  It  is  better 
practice  to  cut  the  first  crop  for  hay,  to  use  it  as 
soiling  food,  or  to  pasture  it,  as  in  growing  the  seed 
of  common  red  clover.  This  plant  will  retain  its 
hold  upon  the  soil  for  several  years.  But  other 
grasses  are  much  prone  to  crowd  it  out  as  it  becomes 
older.  In  some  instances  it  is  only  grown  for  one 
or  two  seasons,  but  usually  the  seed  is  too  costly  to 
admit  of  thus  sowing  sainfoin. 

In  Europe  it  is  common  to  sow  the  seed  while 
yet  in  the  seed  sac,  but  it  is  not  always  sown  thus. 
In  the  rough  form  from  four  to  five  bushels  of  seed 
per  acre  are  used.  When  harvesting  the  seed  much 
care  must  be  exercised  in  handling  the  crop  or  much 
of  the  seed  will  be  lost.  It  should  not  be  handled  in 
the  heat  of  the  day.  And  when  being  made  into 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS.  231 

hay  the  same  care  is  necessary  or  many  of  the  leaves 
will  be  lost.  Much  care  must  also  be  given  the  seed, 
or  it  will  heat  and  spoil.  Inattention  to  this  matter 
is  largely  responsible  for  the  many  failures  to  secure 
a  good  stand  of  plants.  But  it  would  also  seem  to 
be  true  that  the  seed  loses  its  germinating  power 
more  quickly  than  the  seed  of  many  other  legumes. 
Sainfoin,  like  clover,  is  very  beneficial  to  the  soils 
upon  which  it  is  grown. 

But  little  attention  has  been  given  heretofore  to 
the  growing  of  sainfoin  in  this  country.  It  is 
scarcely  mentioned  in  the  reports  of  the  experiment 
stations.  And  yet  it  is  not  improbable  that  it  may 
be  turned  to  excellent  account  in  furnishing  food  for 
live  stock  in  some  sections  of  the  republic.  The 
author  has  traced  its  successful  growth  in  the  vicin- 
ity of  Deer  Lodge,  Montana.  The  grower  prized 
it  on  account  of  the  early  season  at  which  it  fur- 
nished food.  At  the  Ontario  experiment  station,  at 
Guelph,  the  attempts  to  grow  it  were  not  encourag- 
ing. Unquestionably  it  ought  to  have  a  milder 
climate.  It  is  probable  that  it  will  grow  admirably 
in  the  coast  states  between  the  mountains  and  the 
sea.  It  ought  to  do  well  in  the  mountain  valleys 
from  central  Montana  southward.  And  there  may 
be  localities  in  the  balmy  Gulf  states  favorable  to  the 
growth  of  sainfoin.  Beyond  all  question,  this  plant 
is  worthy  of  more  careful  experiment  than  it  has 
hitherto  received. 

But  why  should  the  attempt  be  made  to  grow 
sainfoin  where  we  can  grow  alfalfa,  or  clover?  For 
the  reason  that  there  is  less  danger  from  bloating 
with  the  animals  pastured  on  sainfoin.  At  least  it 
has  been  so  claimed.  If  this  be  true  it  invests  sain- 


232  FORAGE    CROPS. 

foin  with  a  peculiar  interest  to  those  who  grow 
sheep.  A  plant  that  will  grow  equally  well,  or 
nearly  as  well,  as  alfalfa  where  sheep  are  kept 
numerously,  and  that  could  be  pastured  by  them 
without  danger  from  bloating,  would  be  a  great 
boon  to  the  owners  of  sheep,  since  they  cannot  be 
safely  pastured  on  alfalfa. 

The  preparation  of  the  land  for  sainfoin  is  sub- 
stantially the  same  as  for  alfalfa  (see  Page  97). 
The  seed  in  the  rough  form  is  commonly  sown  by 
hand,  but  there  would  seem  to  be  no  good  reason 
why  it  should  not  be  deposited  with  the  grain  drill. 
It  may  be  sown  with  or  without  a  nurse  crop,  accord- 
ing to  the  conditions. 

SPURRY. 

Spurry  (Spergula  an>ensis)  is  looked  upon  as  a 
weed  in  some  of  the  light  soils  of  Great  Britain. 
This,  at  least,  was  true  of  it  at  one  time.  In  Scot- 
land it  was  called  yarr,  and  in  Norfolk,  pickpurse. 
In  other  countries  of  Europe,  as,  for  instance,  Den- 
mark, Holland,  Belgium,  and  some  parts  of  Ger- 
many and  Russia,  spurry  is  highly  esteemed  as  a 
pasture  for  cattle  and  sheep,  and  it  is  also  valued  for 
its  fodder.  It  has  been  found  specially  valuable 
as  a  pasture  for  sheep  and  milch  cows.  Animals 
pastured  on  it  are  not  liable  to  injury  from  bloat. 
Though  they  may  not  take  kindly  to  the  pasture  at 
the  first,  they  soon  get  exceedingly  fond  of  it,  both 
in  the  green  and  cured  form.  It  is  also  claimed  that 
it  has  good  milk  producing  and  fattening  properties. 

Spurry  is  a  tiny-like  plant  which  grows  from 
a  few  inches  to  fully  twenty  inches  in  hight,  accord- 
ing to  the  soil.  The  variety  that  has  come  into  the 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS.  233 

market  under  the  name  of  "giant  spurry"  is  simply 
the  ordinary  spurry.  It  is  not  capable  of  making  a 
stronger  growth  than  ordinary  spurry,  as  the  name 
would  indicate.  The  stems  of  spurry  are  numerous 
and  exceedingly  branched.  They  are  fine  in  char- 
acter, and  they  so  interlace  as  to  make  it  difficult  to 
walk  through  the  crop  in  an  advanced  stage  of 
growth  without  tripping.  The  flowers  are  very 
many,  are  not  more  than  one-eighth  of  an  inch  in 
diameter  and  are  white  in  color.  The  seeds  are 
small.  They  are  contained  in  small  seed  heads 
resembling  those  of  flax,  but  not  more  than  half  as 
large.  They  vary  from  dark  brown  to  black  in 
color.  The  plants  seed  profusely.  On  some  soils 
the  yield  of  fodder  has  been  estimated  as  equal  to 
that  of  clover,  but  ordinarily  it  would  not  be 
so  much. 

The  plant  has  special  adaptation  for  light, 
sandy  soils,  and  for  climates  that  are  moist. 
Whether  it  will  be  given  a  place  of  much  prominence 
in  our  agriculture  has  yet  to  be  determined.  On 
productive  soils  it  is  not  likely  to  come  into  general 
favor,  since  other  plants  equally  nutritious  will  give 
greater  yields.  But  on  light,  sandy  soils  low  in  fer- 
tility, it  should  render  valuable  service  where  mois- 
ture is  sufficiently  abundant.  But  few  of  the  agri- 
cultural experiment  station  reports  even  mention 
spurry,  hence  testimony  regarding  its  adaptation  to 
our  conditions  is  almost  entirely  wanting.  It  has 
been  grown,  however,  on  the  light  and  infertile 
sands  of  the  experiment  sub-station  at  Grayling, 
Michigan,  since  1888,  and  the  reports  concerning  it 
are  encouraging.  When  plowed  under  in  the  green 
form  it  has  been  found  specially  helpful  in  giving 


234  FORAGE    CROPS. 

"body"  to  the  light,  sandy  land  and  in  otherwise 
fitting  it  to  grow  successfully  crops  of  clover  and 
grain.  At  the  Minnesota  University  experiment 
station,  spurry  has  not  proved  altogether  satisfac- 
tory thus  far.  The  growth  secured  has  not  been 
sufficient  to  make  it  a  competitor  with  some 
other  crops. 

Spurry  should  be  sown  more  as  a  catch  crop 
than  as  a  regular  crop  in  the  rotation.  It  should  be 
ready  to  pasture  or  to  plow  under  in  from  six  to 
eight  weeks  from  the  date  of  sowing,  providing  it  is 
not  sown  before  the  weather  has  become  warm. 
Where  there  is  moisture  enough  to  insure  germina- 
tion, spurry  can  be  sown  after  a  grain  crop,  and 
simply  covered  with  a  harrow.  On  the  bare  fallow 
it  would  also  seem  to  have  a  place.  When  grown 
as  a  green  manure  or  as  a  pasture  for  sheep,  two 
crops  a  year  may  be  secured,  and  in  some  climates 
three.  This  crop,  therefore,  would  seem  worthy  of 
attention  on  the  part  of  our  agriculturists,  more 
especially  on  "pine  lands"  where  the  soil  is  sandy 
and  poor  and  where  the  climate  is  moist  in 
character. 

Since  spurry  is  best  adapted  to  light,  sandy 
lands,  but  little  labor  is  necessary  in  preparing  the 
soil.  The  seed  should  fall  on  a  smooth,  impacted 
and  fine  surface,  and  it  may  be  sown  and  covered  in 
the  same  way  as  clover  seed.  As  the  seed  is  small, 
a  light  harrow  will  give  a  sufficient  covering.  From 
six  to  eight  quarts  of  seed  are  sown  per  acre  to  pro- 
vide pasture,  fodder  or  green  manure.  But  a  less 
quantity  will  suffice  to  produce  a  seed  crop  in  good 
form.  It  is  ready  to  cut  for  hay  after  the  seed  has 
formed  and  before  it  is  ripe.  The  seed  may  be  bar- 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS.  235 

vested  and  threshed  like  clover  seed.  When  grown 
for  the  seed,  a  sufficient  quantity  is  likely  to  shatter 
out  to  produce  a  crop  the  next  year,  by  simply  run- 
ning the  harrow  over  the  land  in  the  early  spring. 

Spurry  has  been  called  "the  clover  of  light, 
sandy  soils,"  because  of  its  value  in  improving  the 
same,  both  in  texture  and  fertility,  when  grown  as  a 
green  manure.  It  should  be  turned  under  with  a 
light  furrow  that  the  plant  food  may  be  kept  near 
the  surface.  If  some  of  the  seed  is  allowed  to  ripen 
before  the  crop  is  thus  buried,  another  crop  of  spurry 
will  grow  above  the  decaying  plants  without  the 
necessity  of  sowing  any  more  seed.  Under  some 
conditions  it  is  possible  to  plow  under  three  crops 
of  spurry  in  one  season. 

KALE. 

Kale  is  a  variety  of  Brassica  oleracea,  the 
species  of  cruciferous  plants  to  which  cabbage, 
cauliflower  and  Brussels  sprouts  belong.  Ordi- 
narily, it  means  any  variety  of  headless  cabbage 
which  produces  curled  and  crinkled  leaves,  but  in 
some  varieties  the  leaves  are  smooth.  In  some  of 
its  varieties  it  is  grown  in  kitchen  gardens  for  its 
leaves.  These  are  variously  cooked,  as  for  greens, 
for  potherbs,  or  as  a  component  in  making  some 
kinds  of  soup.  In  certain  parts  of  Virginia,  much 
kale  is  grown  and  shipped  to  the  northern  markets 
in  winter.  In  Great  Britain  some  varieties  of  kale 
are  grown  to  provide  green  food  for  sheep  and  lambs 
at  certain  seasons  of  the  year,  but  more  especially  in 
the  early  spring.  One  variety  is  very  much 
branched.  It  is  popularly  spoken  of  as  "thousand- 


236  FORAGE    CROPS. 

headed  kale."  It  produces  fine  and  tender  herbage, 
which  is  greatly  relished  by  lambs,  and  is  also  very 
suitable  for  them.  Kale  bears  no  little  resemblance 
to  rape  in  what  may  be  termed  its  general  habit  of 
growth.  It  produces  only  leaves  and  stems  the  first 
season,  and  in  these  its  virtue  consists  as  a  pasture 
or  as  a  soiling  food.  The  common  varieties  of  kale 
do  not  seem  so  well  adapted  as  rape  to  furnish  either, 
since,  on  many  soils  at  least,  they  do  not  grow  so 
quickly,  nor  do  they  produce  so  much  in  bulk. 

The  trial  plots  grown  at  the  Minnesota  Uni- 
versity experiment  station  proved  fairly  satisfactory. 
When  sown  late  in  May,  the  plants  were  ready  for 
being  fed  off  by  the  middle  of  July.  Those  not 
used  as  food  at  that  season  lost  what  may  be  termed 
their  bloom,  while  the  hot  weather  lasted,  but  when 
the  autumn  rains  began  to  fall,  they  measurably 
revived  and  retained  their  greenness  until  the 
approach  of  winter. 

Kale  is  adapted  to  the  same  kinds  of  soil  as 
rape  (see  Page  152).  The  preparation  of  the  soil 
is  also  the  same.  But  it  will  probably  be  found  that 
kale  is  not  so  well  adapted  to  broadcast  sowing  as 
rape,  since  it  is  not  so  vigorous  a  grower.  When 
sown  in  rows  these  should  not  be  closer  than  twenty- 
four  inches.  The  directions  given  for  sowing  rape 
in  rows  will  apply  equally  to  kale.  From  one  to 
two  pounds  of  seed  will  be  sufficient  to  sow  an  acre. 

The  wisdom  of  sowing  such  varieties  of  kale  to 
provide  pasture  as  are  usually  grown  in  our  gardens 
is  at  least  to  be  questioned.  Dwarf  Essex  rape  will 
probably  better  serve  the  end  sought.  But  the 
variety  grown  in  Great  Britain  as  "thousand-headed 
kale"  may  yet  be  given  an  important  place  in  our  list 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS.  237 

of  pasture  plants.  On  the  coast  of  the  Atlantic 
there  should  be  a  place  for  this  plant,  and  also  on  the 
coast  of  the  Pacific.  But  when  it  is  to  be  used  as  a 
spring  pasture,  it  can  only  be  grown  in  mild  lati- 
tudes. It  should  certainly  be  given  careful  experi- 
mentation in  the  areas  referred  to. 

MUSTARD. 

The  only  species  of  mustard  that  have  been 
extensively  grown  as  field  crops  are  known  as  black 
and  white  mustard,  respectively.  Black  mustard 
(Brassica  nigra)  is  known  also  as  brown  or  red 
mustard.  Formerly  it  was  extensively  grown  for 
the  seed  in  Great  Britain  and  certain  other  countries 
of  the  continent  of  Europe,  and  in  some  localities  it 
is  still  looked  upon  as  a  valuable  crop.  It  has  been 
objected  to  as  a  regular  rotation  crop,  first,  because 
of  its  exhaustiveness  on  the  land;  second,  because 
of  the  liability  to  damage  through  discoloration  of 
the  seed,  as  by  rain  when  it  is  being  harvested,  and, 
third,  from  the  danger  that  plants  from  the  seed  will 
spring  up  and  make  trouble  in  succeeding  crops. 

White  mustard  (Brassica  alba)  is  distinguished 
from  the  black  by  its  stems  being  covered  with  rough 
leaves  and  by  the  pods  terminating  in  a  broad  two- 
edged  beak.  The  seeds  are  of  a  pale  yellow  color. 
This  kind  is  also  frequently  grown  for  the  seed. 
A  good  crop  in  Great  Britain  yields  from  thirty 
to  forty  bushels  per  acre.  It  is  sometimes  grown 
for  being  plowed  under.  It  is  excellent  for  such  a 
use  because  of  its  rapid  growth  and  bulky  character, 
because  of  the  large  proportion  of  the  food  which  it 
gathers  from  the  air,  and  because  of  the  ameliorating 


238  FORAGE    CROPS. 

influence  which  it  exerts  upon  the  soil.  But  it  is 
grown  even  more  frequently  as  a  catch  crop  to  pro- 
vide pasture  for  sheep,  and  more  especially  in  sea- 
sons when  turnips  have  failed.  In  the  climate  of 
England  it  is  ready  for  being  pastured  or  plowed 
under  at  eight  weeks  from  the  date  of  sowing,  when 
it  is  not  sown  sooner  than  the  last  half  of  July  nor 
later  than  the  end  of  August.  In  the  Mississippi 
basin,  and  indeed  in  the  major  portion  of  the  United 
States,  it  should  grow  even  more  quickly,  because  of 
the  higher  mean  summer  temperature.  Some  day, 
therefore,  there  ought  to  be  an  extensive  place  for 
this  plant  in  our  system  of  agriculture.  There  is 
ample  time  to  grow  it  after  many  crops  have  been 
harvested.  On  fallow  lands  and  especially  on  those 
of  the  prairie  there  should  be  a  place  for  white  mus- 
tard. When  grown  on  these  it  could  be  wholly 
grazed  off  by  sheep.  If  too  abundant  to  admit  of 
its  being  all  eaten,  after  the  depasturing  the  residue 
could  be  plowed  under  with  great  advantage  to  the 
succeeding  crop  or  crops. 

White  mustard  will  probably  grow  in  any  of 
the  tillable  portions  of  Canada  or  the  United  States 
where  the  land  is  supplied  with  a  sufficiency  of  mois- 
ture, whether  obtained  from  a  natural  or  an  artificial 
source.  On  the  valley  soils  amid  the  Rocky  moun- 
tains it  should  produce  large  yields  of  seed,  because 
of  their  richness  in  phosphoric  acid.  The  high  price 
of  the  seed  may  interfere  with  the  extensive  growth 
of  this  plant  at  the  present  time,  but  it  would  be 
easy  indeed  for  the  farmer  to  grow  his  own  seed. 
The  author  grew  it  to  some  extent  at  the  Ontario 
government  experiment  farm,  at  Guelph,  where  it 
yielded  seed  profusely.  Nor  is  there  any  real  diffi- 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS.  239 

culty  in  ridding  the  land  of  the  plant  where  seed  has 
been  grown,  as  in  the  case  of  black  mustard. 

When  grown  as  pasture  or  as  green  manure,  the 
seed  may  be  broadcasted  on  nicely  pulverized  land 
and  covered  with  the  harrow.  From  ten  to  fifteen 
pounds  of  seed  would  be  ample  to  sow  an  acre,  and 
on  soils  rich  and  in  a  good  condition  of  tilth,  prob- 
ably half  that  amount  would  suffice.  The  seed 
should  not  be  sown  until  danger  from  frost  is  past, 
as  mustard  plants  are  much  susceptible  to  injury 
from  frosts  at  any  stage  in  their  growth.  In  warm 
weather  they  grow  with  great  rapidity  in  light  soils. 

When  mustard  is  grown  for  sheep  pasture,  it 
may  be  sown  alone  or  in  conjunction  with  rape.  It 
is  believed  that  when  sheep  are  pastured  on  a  mixed 
crop  of  rape  and  mustard,  they  are  less  liable  to  take 
injury  from  bloat  than  when  pastured  on  rape  alone. 
In  other  words,  the  mustard  would  seem  to  lessen 
the  hazard.  One  chief  objection  to  mixing  the  seeds 
of  mustard  and  rape  to  produce  such  a  crop  arises 
from  the  greater  quickness  with  which  the  mustard 
grows.  It  is  ready  for  being  pastured  sooner  than 
the  rape,  hence  by  the  time  the  rape  is  ready,  the 
mustard  has  become  in  a  sense  woody.  The  leaves 
and  pods  will  be  eaten,  however,  though  the  stems 
may  be  rejected.  This  difficulty  may  be  obviated,  in 
part  at  least,  by  sowing  the  mustard  in  one  or  more 
portions  of  the  pasture  later  than  the  rape. 

Mustard  alone  is  not  a  sufficient  pasture  for 
sheep.  When  feeding  on  it  they  should  also  have 
access  to  grass  or  other  pasture.  Although  it  fur- 
nishes a  healthful  food  for  them,  it  may  lead  to  purg- 
ing when  they  are  first  turned  in  upon  it  if  allowed 
to  pasture  upon  it  at  will,  and  the  danger  is  all  the 


240  FORAGE    CROPS. 

greater  if  they  have  previously  been  accustomed  to 
dry  pasture  only.  It  is  ready  for  being  grazed  off 
when  the  plants  are  forming  flower  buds.  And  it 
should  be  eaten  down  quickly  because  of  the  short- 
ness of  the  period  which  it  requires  to  mature. 

THE  LUPINE. 

There  are  many  species  of  the  lupine  genus.  It 
belongs  to  the  Pulse  or  Leguminosae  family.  Sev- 
eral species  were  known  to  the  ancients  and  culti- 
vated by  them  as  food  for  man  and  beast.  In  the 
United  States  the  species  are  numerous,  and  they 
are  found  chiefly  west  of  the  Rocky  mountains. 
Their  agricultural  value  does  not  appear  as  yet  to 
have  been  determined.  In  the  eastern  states  there 
are  several  species,  with  flowers  ranging  from  blue 
to  white  in  color,  and  some  of  these  are  cultivated 
in  gardens. 

Of  the  sorts  now  grown  in  Europe,  the 
white  lupine  (Lupinus  albus)  is  by  far  the  most  val- 
uable. It  is  still  extensively  cultivated  in  Italy, 
Sicily,  and  other  Mediterranean  countries  for  forage, 
for  plowing  in  to  enrich  the  land  and  for  its  round, 
flat  seeds,  which  form  an  article  of  food.  The  cul- 
tivation of  the  lupine  in  Portugal  has  proved  a  great 
national  blessing,  and  has  regenerated  large  tracts 
of  wornout  land.  In  Germany  and  other  countries 
of  western  Europe,  great  use  is  made  of  this  plant  in 
bringing  fertility  to  poor,  sandy  lands  too  poor  to 
grow  other  food  crops  profitably,  until  so  renewed. 

The  white  lupine  is  an  annual.  It  derives  its 
name  from  lupus,  a  wolf,  in  allusion  to  its  voracious 
qualities,  that  is  to  say,  to  the  greedy  way  in  which 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS.  24! 

it  gathers  plant  food  from  the  soil.  Its  long  roots 
strike  deeply  into  the  same,  and  appropriate  to  them- 
selves whatever  they  find  there  capable  of  nourish- 
ing them,  and  when  again  plowed  under  they  leave 
the  food  thus  gathered  near  the  surface,  and  in  a 
readily  available  form,  so  that  it  can  be  easily  taken 
up  by  more  shallow  rooted  plants.  The  strength  of 
the  plant  will  of  course  depend  upon  such  conditions 
as  climate,  soil  and  soil  constituents.  The  young 
plants  are  readily  eaten  by  sheep,  and  some  of  the 
other  domestic  animals.  At  least,  so  it  is  claimed 
by  many  authorities.  The  author  has  only  grown 
lupines  to  a  limited  extent,  and  not  with  results 
highly  encouraging.  The  tests  were  made  in  the 
province  of  Ontario.  In  central  Michigan,  several 
varieties,  after  numerous  trials,  have  uniformly  made 
a  slow,  sickly  growth.  The  seeds  are  not  looked  upon 
as  being  of  great  commercial  value.  The  greatest 
value  of  the  lupine  arises  from  the  enrichment 
which  it  brings  to  poor  soils,  as  light  sands,  gravels 
and  thin  clays. 

The  white  lupine  has  not -been  much  grown 
in  this  country,  hence  information  regarding  it  is 
meager.  The  localities,  therefore,  in  which  it  is 
likely  to  flourish  cannot  now  be  given  with  precision. 
But  there  would  seem  to  be  no  good  reasons  why  it 
should  not  be  made  to  render  valuable  service  in  pro- 
viding pasture  for  sheep  and  in  bringing  fertility  to 
poor,  sandy  and  gravelly  soils  in  such  portions  of  the 
United  States  and  Canada  as  are  favored  with  a 
moist  summer  climate.  Such  are  certain  of  the 
soils  of  New  England,  northern  Michigan  and  Wis- 
consin and  the  Atlantic  provinces  of  Canada,  and 
such  is  the  climate  in  these  localities.  The  same  is 

*   16 


242  FORAGE    CROPS. 

also  measurably  true  of  portions  of  the  Gulf  states, 
and  lupines  may  also  have  a  mission  in  renovating 
worn  soils  in  the  same  areas.  The  agricultural 
experiment  stations  can  soon  determine  this  question. 

SACALINE. 

Sacaline  (Polygonum  Sachalinense)  has  been 
given  more  attention  by  experimenters  in  our  agri- 
cultural colleges  than  many  other  plants  more 
deserving  of  investigation.  In  field  experiments  at 
the  experiment  stations,  the  claims  of  some  plants 
for  investigation  would  seem  to  come  at  high  tide, 
while  the  claims  of  some  other  plants  rich  in  promise 
have  been  but  little  heeded.  The  experiments  thus 
made  with  sacaline,  however,  have  been  valuable  in 
determining  so  quickly  the  comparative  worthless- 
ness  of  sacaline  as  a  forage  plant  or  as  a  fodder 
plant  in  the  United  States.  In  this  finding  the 
reports  are  practically  unanimous. 

Only  two  or  three  years  ago  certain  of  the  seeds- 
men were  extravagant  in  their  recommendations  of 
sacaline.  They  claimed  that  it  was  a  most  vigorous 
grower,  that  it  would  flourish  in  almost  any  kind  of 
soil,  wet  or  dry,  loamy  or  tenacious,  light  or  heavy, 
rich  or  poor;  that  it  would  furnish  several  cuttings 
a  year;  that  it  was  highly  nutritious,  and  that  live 
stock  were  fond  of  it.  No  one  of  these  claims  has 
been  verified  in  any  considerable  degree  by  the 
reports  that  have  been  published  regarding  it  by  the 
various  experiment  stations  on  this  continent.  At 
the  Minnesota  University  experiment  station,  the 
growth  made  in  any  one  season  has  been  inconsider- 
able. The  plants  soon  became  woody,  and  the  live 
stock  could  not  be  induced  to  eat  it. 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS.  243 

Sacaline  is  said  to  have  come  from  the  island  of 
Saghalin  or  Sakhalin,  in  the  sea  of  Okhotsk,  between 
Japan  and  Siberia.  It  is  shrub-like  and  leafy  in  its 
habit  of  growth.  It  is  more  commonly  propagated 
by  means  of  root  cuttings.  It  is  of  more  than  one 
variety,  and  this  fact  may  be  measurably  responsible 
for  the  almost  universal  condemnation  given  to  it  in 
America.  In  some  parts  of  Europe  it  has  found  no 
little  favor.  In  the  meantime  the  farmers  of  this 
continent  will  do  well  to  leave  sacaline  in  the  hands 
of  the  agricultural  experiment  stations. 

THE   PEANUT. 

The  peanut  (Arachis  hypogaea)  is  variously 
known  by  such  names  as  goober,  earth  nut,  ground 
nut,  pindar,  ground  pea,  jar  nut,  manilla  nut  and 
monkey  nut.  It  is  an  annual  and  belongs  to  the 
Pulse  family.  The  habit  of  the  growth  is  trailing 
The  branches  are  numerous  and  likewise  the  leaves. 
The  latter  bear  no  little  resemblance  to  clover  leaves. 
After  blossoming,  the  little  pods  bend  down  and 
thrust  themselves  into  the  ground.  The  cultivation 
adopted  still  further  aids  in  burying  the  fruit  of  this 
plant.  It  matures,  therefore,  below  the  surface  of 
the  ground.  Within  the  shell  or  kernel  one,  two  or 
three  irregularly  ovoid-shaped  seeds  are  produced. 

The  peanut  is  a  tropical  or  sub-tropical  plant 
and  is  adapted  only  to  warm  climates.  Botanists 
are  not  agreed  as  to  whether  it  is  a  native  of  Africa 
or  America.  For  a  long  time  it  has  been  much 
grown  in  America,  Africa,  India,  China,  and  the 
islands  of  the  Malayan  archipelago.  It  can  be 
grown  in  fairly  good  form  in  all  the  states  of  the 


244  FORAGE    CROPS. 

Union  south  of  the  4Oth  parallel,  that  is  to  say,  south 
of  the  latitude  of  Indianapolis. 

This  plant  has  hitherto  been  grown  chiefly  as 
an  article  of  commerce.  It  is  cultivated  much  the 
same  as  Indian  corn.  The  fruit  is  sold  somewhat 
extensively  as  food  in  all  cities  north  and  south,  and 
it  is  made  into  an  oil  that  is  used  as  a  lubricant  and 
also  for  lighting. 

In  some  of  the  southern  states  it  has  been  grown 
as  a  food  for  live  stock  and  more  especially  as  a  for- 
age for  swine.  Since  it  is  adapted  to  sandy  land  it 
may  be  grown  on  large  areas  in  the  southern  states. 
The  yield  in  some  instances  is  not  much  less  than 
forty  bushels  per  acre,  but  ordinarily  it  is  consider- 
ably less  than  that  amount.  Whether  it  shall  come 
to  be  generally  grown  as  a  food  for  swine  may 
depend  somewhat  on  the  market  values  of  the  fruit. 
Swine  are  fond  of  the  nuts,  and  when  thus  fed  the 
labor  of  digging  is  avoided. 

THE  VELVET  BEAN. 

The  velvet  bean  (Dolichos  multiflorus)  is  a 
plant  which  has  only  recently  been  brought  before 
the  American  public.  It  has  been  grown  for  several 
years  in  Florida,  but  rather  as  a  trellis  shade  than 
as  a  food  plant  or  a  fertilizer.  It  is  said  to  have 
been  imported  into  Florida  from  Brazil,  and  into 
the  test  gardens  of  some  seedsmen  from  Japan.  Its 
precise  value  to  the  United  States  has  yet  to  be 
determined,  although  there  can  be  but  little  question 
that  as  a  food  plant  and  also  as  a  source  of  fertility 
it  may  yet  be  made  to  bestow  much  benefit  on  the 
more  southern  of  the  Atlantic  states  and  also  on 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS.  245 

those  which  border  on  the  Gulf  of  Mexico.  But 
present  indications  would  seem  to  point  to  the  con- 
clusion that  it  is  not  likely  to  be  extensively  grown 
much  further  north  than  the  areas  named,  since  it 
requires  a  comparatively  long  season  to  mature  its 
growth. 

The  velvet  bean  is  of  a  trailing  habit  of  growth. 
The  vines  run  out  from  the  hills  in  every  direction 
and  to  the  distance  of  ten  to  twenty  feet.  It  com- 
mences to  fruit  near  the  hill,  and  thence  along 
the  whole  length  of  the  vine  at  intervals.  The 
pods  appear  in  clusters  and  they  contain  each 
from  three  to  five  beans.  They  are  thick  and 
leathery  and  of  a  brown  color.  The  surface  of 
the  pod  is  velvety  in  character,  hence  the  name  given 
to  the  plant. 

The  velvet  bean  has  highest  adaptation  for 
sandy  soils,  and  on  these  its  power  to  grow  is  so 
marked  that  it  will  push  ahead  where  rye  will  grow 
but  feebly.  Since  it  requires  a  long  season  for  per- 
fecting its  growth,  it  should  be  planted  reasonably 
early  in  the  spring.  Much  has  yet  to  be  learned 
about  the  best  methods  of  growing  it,  but  some 
experimenters  favor  planting  in  hills  in  squares  four 
feet  distant.  Other  growers  recommend  planting  at 
a  greater  distance.  From  three  to  five  seeds  are 
sufficient  for  a  hill.  Careful  cultivation  should  then 
be  given  in  due  time  and  this  ought  to  be  continued 
as  long  as  the  work  can  be  done  without  injury  to 
the  extending  vines. 

It  is  claimed  that  stock  eat  the  velvet  bean  with 
avidity  when  green  or  cured  and  that  it  makes 
a  valuable  hay.  But  these  claims  should  be  re- 
ceived with  some  reserve  until  they  have  been 


246  FORAGE    CROPS. 

farther  attested.  It  must  surely  be  somewhat 
difficult  to  harvest  a  plant  for  hay  which  grows 
as  the  velvet  bean  does.  But  there  can  be  but 
little  doubt  as  to  its  unusual  power  to  grow  even 
in  poor  soils  and  to  bring  fertility  to  them.  Its 
power  to  produce  root  tubercles  is  marked,  and 
the  mass  of  foliage  with  which  it  covers  the 
soil  is  very  great,  hence  when  this  leguminous 
plant  is  buried  with  the  plow  in  the  green  form 
it  not  only  adds  much  to  the  fertility  of  the  land, 
but  it  greatly  increases  the  power  of  the  same 
to  hold  moisture,  at  least  for  a  time. 


BEGGAR'S  TICKS. 


Beggar's  ticks  (Desmodium  tortuosum),  some- 
times called  beggar  weed,  is  an  annual,  and  it 
is,  moreover,  a  legume.  It  is  a  vigorous  grower 
and  it  has  much  power  to  grow  on  poor  soils. 
During  recent  years  it  has  come  into  considerable 
favor  in  Florida  and  some  other  parts  of  the  south 
as  a  hay  producing  plant,  and  since  it  grows  again 
when  eaten  off  or  cut  down  and  is  also  relished  by 
live  stock,  it  should  have  considerable  merit  as  a  pas- 
ture plant.  At  the  Minnesota  University  experiment 
farm,  plants  from  seed  sown  in  May  were  coming 
into  flower  in  September.  The  plants  are  sturdy 
and  branching  and  are  somewhat  coarse  because  of 
the  space  given  them  to  branch  out. 

It  is  at  least  questionable  if  as  good  results  will 
be  obtained  from  growing  beggar's  ticks  for  pasture 
as  from  growing  cowpeas  where  the  latter  do  well, 
but  this  question  does  not  appear  to  have  been  settled 
as  yet.  Since  it  is  able  to  fight  its  own  battle  in  the 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS.  247 

companionship  of  many  noxious  weeds  and  since  it 
is  an  enricher  of  the  soil,  its  merits  are  not  to  be 
overlooked. 

The  very  best  methods  of  growing  it  do  not  as 
yet  appear  to  have  been  wrought  out,  but  it  can  be 
grown  by  sowing  the  seed  broadcast  or  in  drills  and 
cultivating  it.  The  former  method  will  probably  be 
preferable  when  it  is  grown  for  pasture.  Because  of 
the  branching  nature  of  its  growth  and  of  the 
strength  of  the  stems  when  not  crowded,  the  seeds 
should  be  sown  thickly.  And  since  they  germinate 
slowly  when  encircled  by  the  outer  covering  they 
should  be  sown  in  the  fall  rather  than  in  the  spring 
where  the  winters  are  not  too  severe.  This  plant 
should  also  be  more  easily  harvested  for  fodder  than 
cowpeas.  It  is  not  probable  that  beggar's  ticks  will 
render  much  service  north  of  the  Ohio  river,  but  in 
many  sections  of  the  south  it  is  certainly  well  worthy 
of  most  careful  testing. 

AUSTRALIAN    SALTBUSH. 

The  Australian  saltbush  is  of  many  species. 
The  most  useful  of  these  that  have  yet  been 
tried  under  American  conditions  is  that  known 
as  Atriplex  semibaccata,  introduced  into  Califor- 
nia in  1888.  This  plant  is  a  child  of  semi-arid 
regions.  It  is  possessed  of  peculiar  power  to 
grow  in  soils  strongly  impregnated  with  alkali.  It 
furnishes  both  pasture  and.  hay  which  are  more  or 
less  relished  by  domestic  animals.  It  has  given 
encouraging  returns  in  certain  areas  of  California 
where  the  rainfall  was  less  than  five  inches  per 
annum.  And,  since  it  is  easily  established  under  suit- 


248  FORAGE    CROPS. 

able  conditions,  it  should  therefore  prove  of  much 
value  in  providing  forage  and  fodder  in  very  con- 
siderable areas  of  the  western  and  southwestern 
states. 

The  species  of  saltbush  under  discussion  is 
spreading  and  drooping  rather  than  erect  in  its  habit 
of  growth.  The  stems  branch  out  very  numerously 
from  the  crown,  and  branchlets  covered  with  long 
narrow  shaped  leaves  multiply  on  them  in  a  marked 
degree.  The  outer  stems,  therefore,  are  fine  and 
very  numerous,  but  toward  the  base  the  larger  stems 
become  more  or  less  woody  (Fig.  24).  The  plants 
bear  no  little  resemblance  to  the  Russian  thistle  at 
various  stages  of  their  growth.  The  habit  of  root 
growth  is  much  dependent  on  the  character  of  the 
soil.  In  suitable  soil  the  tendrils  are  numerous. 
They  spread  out  not  very  far  below  the  surface  and 
throw  down  numerous  rootlets  into  the  subsoil 
below.  On  hardpan,  however,  they  send  a  taproot 
far  down,  with  but  few  rootlets  on  it. 

Australian  saltbush  has  already  been  tried  with 
more  or  less  of  success  in  various  counties  of  Cali- 
fornia, as  described  in  Bulletin  No.  125, issued  by  the 
experiment  station  of  that  state.  The  same  is  true 
of  the  more  limited  experiments  conducted  in  Utah, 
Washington,  Nebraska  and  various  places  in  Texas 
and  New  Mexico. 

Where  semi-arid  conditions  prevail  is  unques- 
tionably the  place  for  this  plant,  and  more  especially 
on  lands  so  impregnated  with  alkali  as  to  practically 
forbid  the  successful  growth  of  more  valuable  food 
products  in  the  absence  of  irrigation.  It  may, 
therefore,  have  an  important  mission  for  many  sec- 
tions of  the  United  States  eastward  from  the  Missis- 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS. 


249 


11 

Z!  8 


25O  FORAGE    CROPS. 

sippi  basin  and  up  to  that  as  yet  undetermined  north- 
ward limit  which  will  hinder  its  successful  growth. 
That  its  growth  will  be  profitable  where  other  and 
more  palatable  food  crops  can  be  grown  is  not  at 
all  probable. 

The  best  modes  of  growing  this  plant  have  not 
yet  been  fully  wrought  out,  but  it  is  pretty  certain 
that  the  practice  of  sowing  the  seed  on  well  prepared 
land  as  soon  as  the  first  autumn  rains  come  is  a  com- 
mendable one.  It  will  be  better  probably  to  sow  in 
rows,  that  the  land  may  be  kept  free  from  intrusive 
weed  growth  for  a  time  and  from,  say,  six  to  eight 
or  ten  feet  should  be  close  enough  for  the  rows,  since 
in  some  instances  plants  reach  out  and  cover  a  cir- 
cumference of  sixteen  to  eighteen  feet,  but  that  is 
very  much  more  than  the  average  diameter  of  the 
plant.  At  the  Minnesota  University  experiment 
station,  seed  sown  in  May  produced  plants  fully 
three  feet  in  diameter  by  September  ist.  The  method 
sometimes  practiced  of  starting  the  plants  in  pots 
and  then  transplanting  them  is  too  laborious  for 
common  practice  over  large  areas.  As  they  seed 
plentifully,  the  volunteer  plants  soon  fill  up  the 
vacant  space  when  at  least  a  portion  of  the  seed  is 
allowed  to  shatter  out.  On  alkali  lands  the  seed  will 
germinate  better  when  simply  pressed  into  the 
ground  with  a  heavy  roller  than  when  covered,  but 
on  other  soils  it  should  be  covered  lightly. 

Much  conflict  of  opinion  has  been  expressed  as 
to  the  feeding  value  of  Australian  saltbush,  but  the 
difference  relates  more  to  palatability  than  to  nutri- 
tion. There  can  be  no  question  as  to  its  valuable 
nutritive  properties,  since  it  stands  high  in  protein. 
Some  growers  claim  that  stock  will  not  eat  it,  but 


MISCELLANEOUS    PLANTS.  25! 

a  majority  of  these  state  that  horses,  cattle,  sheep 
and  goats  are  fond  of  it  and  thrive  well  on  it.  Where 
more  palatable  plants  cannot  be  grown,  the  classes  of 
domestic  animals  named  will  probably  become  fond 
of  it,  while  those  fed  on  more  tasty  products  will  eat 
it  very  shyly,  as  do  sheep  at  the  Minnesota  Univer- 
sity experiment  station. 

On  the  whole,  the  Australian  saltbush  is  well 
worthy  of  wide  and  careful  experimentation  in  all 
the  semi-arid  country  in  the  United  States.  Infor- 
mation on  the  very  best  modes  of  sowing,  pasturing, 
cutting  and  curing  this  plant,  and  of  saving  the  seed, 
is  not  as  yet  forthcoming,  at  least  under  American 
conditions.  Such  knowledge  will  have  to  be  gleaned 
from  experiments  not  yet  undertaken. 


CHAPTER  XII. 

SUCCESSION  IN  FORAGE  CROPS. 

By  succession  in  forage  crops  is  meant  that 
order  in  which  they  may  be  grown  throughout  the 
season  so  as  to  provide  pasture  in  uninterrupted  con- 
tinuity, and  so  that  each  kind  of  forage  may  be 
grazed  when  at  its  best.  The  treatment  of  this 
question  is  difficult  because  of  the  great  variation  in 
the  forage  crops  that  are  adapted  to  various  sections 
in  the  wide  area  under  consideration,  and  because  of 
the  no  less  variation  in  the  climates  of  the  same. 
No  better  plan,  probably,  can  be  adopted  than  to 
divide  the  country  into  sections,  and  to  formulate  a 
succession  in  forage  crops  that  would  be  suitable  to 
each.  This  division  should,  of  course,  have  a  due 
regard  to  similarity  in  conditions  such  as  relate  to 
climate  and  soil. 

The  various  forage  crops  will  be  enumerated  in 
the  order  in  which  they  are  usually  ready  for  being 
grazed.  They  are  not  thus  enumerated  with  the 
idea  that  the  farmer  shall  grow  all  of  them,  or  even 
a  majority  of  them,  in  a  single  season.  It  would 
seldom  be  wise  for  him  to  do  so.  But  they  are  men- 
tioned in  the  order  named  that  he  may  the  more 
readily  select  such  of  them  for  being  grown  as  shall 
best  suit  his  purpose.  Where  grasses  are  a  sure 
reliance,  it  will  seldom  be  necessary  for  the  farmer 
to  grow  more  than  one,  two  or  three  kinds  the 
same  year.  Forage  from  grass  should  always  be 

252 


SUCCESSION  IN  FORAGE  CROPS.       253 

looked  upon  as  the  great  reliance  for  pasture, 
wherever  such  forage  grows  freely,  whether  spon- 
taneously or  otherwise.  Other  forage  crops  should 
be  made  auxiliary  to  it,  unless  the  growth  of  grasses 
is  so  meager  as  to  forbid  giving  these  so  prominent 
a  place.  Wherever  practicable  a  reserve  of  grass 
forage  should  be  held,  as  it  were,  for  seasons  of  wet 
weather  and  for  those  periods  of  emergency  when 
other  forage  crops  may  not  be  on  hand  or  may  not 
be  ready  for  being  grazed. 

Grouping  States  and  Provinces. — For  the  prac- 
tical illustration  of  this  question,  the  United  States 
and  Canada  may  be  divided  into  eight  sections. 
Beginning  at  the  northeast,  Section  No.  i  will 
include  all  the  arable  country  east  of  Lakes  Superior 
and  Michigan  and  north  of  the  Ohio  river.  Section 
No.  2  includes  the  states  west  of  Michigan  and  Ohio, 
north  of  the  Missouri  and  Ohio  rivers,  taking  in 
Manitoba,  and  east  of  the  Dakotas  and  Assiniboia. 
Section  No.  3  includes  the  states  south  of  the  Ohio 
and  east  of  the  Mississippi,  and  also  the  states  of 
Louisiana,  Arkansas  and  Missouri,  west  of  the  Mis- 
sissippi. Section  No.  4  includes  the  states  west  of 
Iowa,  Missouri,  Arkansas  and  Louisiana,  south  of 
Dakota  and  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  Section 
No.  5  covers  the  states  and  provinces  of  Canada 
west  of  Minnesota  and  Manitoba,  north  of  Nebraska 
and  east  of  the  Rocky  mountains.  Section  No.  6 
includes  the  Rocky  mountain  valleys  north  from 
Salt  Lake.  Section  No.  7  includes  the  Rocky  moun- 
tain valleys  south  of  Salt  Lake  and  extends  west- 
ward to  the  sea.  And  Section  No.  8  includes  the 
narrow  area  north  of  California  and  between  the 
Cascades  and  the  sea. 


254  FORAGE    CROPS. 

And  here  it  ought  to  be  mentioned,  that  of 
necessity  these  divisions  are  more  or  less  arbitrary. 
The  factor  of  altitude  alone  may  so  affect  plant 
growth  as  to  materially  neutralize  the  value  of  any 
attempts  that  may  thus  be  made  to  illustrate  succes- 
sion in  forage  crops.  Wind  currents  also  have  their 
influence,  and  likewise  precipitation. 

Succession  in  Section  No.  i. — The  rainfall  in 
Section  No.  i  is  more  abundant  and  timely  than  in 
any  of  the  other  sections,  unless  it  be  in  No.  8.  The 
soil  is  also  well  adapted  to  the  growth  of  grasses, 
hence  in  this  section  every  reasonable  effort  should 
be  made  by  the  farmers  to  utilize  grasses  as  factors 
in  forage.  The  influences  that  are  so  favorable  to 
grass  pastures  are  also  favorable  to  the  growth  of 
variety  in  forage  crops,  hence  the  list  of  these  that 
may  be  grown  in  succession  is  a  long  one.  Promi- 
nent among  these  crops  are  winter  rye,  blue  grass 
and  other  grasses,  clover,  mixed  grains,  as  peas  and 
oats,  rape,  vetches  and  cereals,  corn  and  rape,  sor- 
ghum, millet,  clover,  rape,  winter  rye  and  rape,  cab- 
bage and  blue  grass.  These  are  mentioned  in  the 
order  in  which  they  are  naturally  in  season  for  being 
pastured,  but  this  order  may  be  modified  by  the  time 
at  which  they  are  sown  or  planted.  For  cattle,  the 
more  valuable  of  these  are  grasses  and  clovers,  and 
next  in  point  of  value  are  mixed  grains  and  sor- 
ghum. For  sheep  they  are  all  possessed  of  much 
value,  but  after  grass,  none  are  more  valuable  than 
rye,  sorghum  and  rape.  With  the  aid  of  these  three, 
sheep  may  be  carried  through  any  season  in  good 
form.  For  swine,  clover  and  rape  are  the  most 
valuable,  and  to  these  may  be  added  peas  and  arti- 
chokes, not  enumerated  in  the  list  given. 


SUCCESSION  IN  FORAGE  CROPS.      255 

Succession  in  Section  No.  2.  —  The  succession 
in  forage  crops  that  may  be  grown  in  Section  No.  2 
includes  winter  rye,  blue  grass  or  native  prairie, 
alfalfa,  clover,  mixed  cereals,  rape,  corn,  corn  and 
rape,  sorghum,  millet,  clover,  cowpeas,  soy  beans, 
rape  or  turnips  or  the  two  mixed,  cabbage  and 
blue  grass.  In  this  section  much  of  the  soil 
is  richer  than  that  of  Section  No.  i,  but  the 
rainfall  is  not  distributed  so  regularly,  and  the 
climate  is  warmer  in  summer,  hence  it  is  not 
quite  so  well  adapted  to  the  production  of  grasses. 
^  But  it  is  better  adapted,  relatively,  to  the  growth 
'of  such  foods  as  corn  and  sorghum,  or  indeed 
to  the  growth  of  any  of  the  pasture  foods  named 
which  admit  of  being  grown  quickly.  Less 
dependence  should  be  placed  upon  grass  forage  than 
in  Section  No.  i,  and  more  dependence,  relatively, 
on  such  forage  as  is  furnished  by  mixed  grains,  win- 
ter rye,  rape,  corn  and  sorghum.  In  the  northern 
areas  of  the  section,  winter  rye,  clover  and  alfalfa 
cannot  be  grown  with  profit  for  forage,  and  in  the 
southern  part  only  can  cowpeas  and  soy  beans  be 
grown  with  advantage.  The  forage  crops  other  than 
grass  that  can  be  grown  most  successfully  for  cows 
and  other  cattle  in  all  parts  of  this  section  are  such  as 
mixed  grains,  corn  in  summer  fallows  and  millets. 
The  more  important  of  these  crops  that  can  be  grown 
for  sheep  in  all  parts  of  the  section  are  winter  rye, 
sorghum,  rape  and  turnips.  The  more  valuable  of 
the  same  for  swine  are  mixed  grains  and  rape.  Of 
course  in  the  southern  half  of  the  section,  clover  can 
be  utilized  with  great  advantage  as  swine  pasture, 
and  in  the  northern  half  the  same  is  true  of  field  peas. 

Succession  in  Section  No.  j.  —  The  succession 


TJNIVERSITT 


256  FORAGE    CROPS. 

in  forage  crops  that  may  be  grown  in  Section  No.  3 
includes  besides  certain  grasses,  winter  rye,  rape, 
crimson  clover,  alfalfa,  the  winter  vetch  and  the 
sand  vetch,  mixed  cereals,  corn,  sorghum  of  the 
saccharine  and  non-saccharine  varieties,  millet,  cow- 
peas,  soy  beans,  artichokes  and  peanuts.  The  more 
important  of  these  forage  crops  include  winter  rye, 
rape,  vetches,  the  sorghums  and  cowpeas.  The 
three  first  mentioned  will  be  specially  valuable  in 
cool  weather,  and  the  two  last  mentioned  in  the 
warm  season.  The  mission  of  cowpeas  in  provid- 
ing forage  and  soiling  food  in  nearly  all  parts  of 
the  section  may  be  made  especially  important.* 
Mixed  grains  are  considered  of  too  great  value  to 
grow  as  forage  in  much  of  the  area  named.  The 
more  valuable  of  these  forage  crops  for  cattle  are 
winter  rye,  the  sorghums  and  cowpeas.  The  more 
valuable  of  the  same  for  sheep  are  winter  rye,  rape, 
vetches,  the  sorghums  and  cowpeas.  And  for  swine 
the  more  valuable  are  winter  rye,  rape,  alfalfa,  cow- 
peas,  artichokes  and  peanuts.  This  section  is  favor- 
able to  the  growth  of  certain  of  these  crops  in  con- 
junction, as,  for  instance,  winter  rye  and  rape  and 
cowpeas  and  sorghum. 

Succession  in  Section  No.  4. — In  section  No.  4 
the  succession  in  forage  crops,  in  addition  to  certain 
native  grasses,  will  include  winter  rye,  the  sand 
vetch  and  possibly  other  varieties  of  vetch,  alfalfa, 
corn,  saccharine  and  non-saccharine  sorghums,  cow- 
peas,  soy  beans  and  rape.  The  more  valuable  of 
these  crops  in  furnishing  forage  for  cattle  will 
include  winter  rye,  sorghum,  cowpeas  and  the  soy 
bean.  These  also,  along  with  vetches  and  rape, 
would  all  provide  good  forage  for  sheep.  For  swine 


SUCCESSION  IN  FORAGE  CROPS.       257 

the  more  valuable  of  these  forage  crops  will  include 
alfalfa  and  cowpeas.  In  some  parts  of  the  section, 
forage  crops  will  be  grown  under  irrigation.  The 
rape  plant  will  not  be  so  valuable,  relatively,  as  in 
some  other  parts  of  the  country,  because  of  the 
drouth  and  heat.  Nevertheless,  it  should  be  given 
a  place.  But  the  sorghums  and  soy  beans  will  be 
quite  valuable,  relatively,  because  of  their  drouth- 
resisting  properties. 

Succession  in  Section  No.  5. — In  Section  No. 
5  the  succession  in  forage  crops,  in  addition  to  the 
wild  grasses  of  the  prairie,  will  include  winter  rye, 
rape,  mixed  grains,  peas,  vetches,  corn  or  corn  and 
rape,  sorghum,  turnips  and  cabbage.  Winter  rye 
cannot  be  grown  in  all  portions  of  this  section,  espe- 
cially the  north  and  northwest.  Corn  and  rape  can 
be  grown  with  much  advantage,  particularly  on  the 
wide  areas  of  fallow  land  that  are  usually  found  in 
the  section  every  year.  But  in  growing  corn  for- 
age, a  due  regard  must  be  had  to  choosing  seed  of 
the  hardy  varieties.  Rape  and  turnips  may  be 
safely  sown  with  nearly  all  grain  crops.  And  pas- 
tures from  mixed  cereals  will  grow  well  when  sown, 
in  nearly  all  parts  of  the  section.  Sorghum  may  be 
utilized  with  no  little  advantage,  but  the  climate  is 
too  cold,  except  in  the  extreme  southern  portion, 
for  the  non-saccharine  sorghums.  In  much  of  the 
section  peas  can  be  grown  in  good  form,  more  espe- 
cially toward  the  north.  The  more  valuable  of  the 
forage  crops  for  cows  include  mixed  cereals,  corn 
and  rye.  To  provide  sheep  pasture,  all  those  named 
except  peas  may  be  grown  with  much  advantage. 
And  for  swine,  the  more  valuable  will  include  rape, 
mixed  cereals  and  peas.  Rape  may  be  turned  to 

*    17 


258  FORAGE    CROPS. 

excellent  account  in  providing  swine  forage,  espe- 
cially when  sown  early. 

Succession  in  Section  No.  6. — In  Section  No.  6, 
in  addition  to  certain  native  grasses,  the  succession 
in  forage  crops  will  include  winter  rye,  alfalfa,  clo- 
ver, mixed  cereals,  peas,  vetches,  sorghum  and  rape. 
Alfalfa  and  clover  may  not  succeed  in  the  extreme 
northern  portion  of  Section  No.  6,  but  in  the  more 
southern  valleys  of  the  same  they  grow  wonderfully 
well  when  supplied  with  water.  Mixed  cereals 
grow  admirably  under  similar  conditions,  but  where 
clovers  will  grow  the  same  necessity  does  not  exist 
for  growing  cereals  for  forage.  The  most  impor- 
tant of  these  forage  crops  for  cattle  in  this  section 
is  clover,  next  in  order  is  winter  rye,  and  after  win- 
ter rye  mixed  cereals.  These  are  all  important  for 
sheep  and  are  easily  grown  for  them,  and,  of  course, 
rape  and  sorghum  may  be  added  to  the  list.  Alfalfa, 
clover  and  peas  are  the  most  important  for  swine. 
With  such  pastures  for  swine,  pork  should  be  pro- 
duced very  cheaply  and  of  unsurpassed  quality  in 
Section  No.*6. 

Succession  in  Section  No.  7. — In  many  parts  of 
section  No.  7  the  native  grasses  grow  very  shyly, 
because  of  the  dry  weather.  More  reliance,  there- 
fore, must  be  placed  on  the  other  crops  that  may  be 
grown  for  forage.  The  succession  in  these  includes 
winter  rye,  alfalfa,  the  saccharine  and  non- 
saccharine  sorghums,  the  cowpea,  soy  beans,  the 
sand  vetch  and  rape.  Much  of  the  crop  could  only 
be  grown  by  irrigationo  Because  of  this,  however, 
the  succession  in  the  crops  could  be  more  perfectly 
controlled  than  where  irrigation  is  not  practiced, 
and  in  the  absence  of  a  regular  and  reliable  rainfall. 


SUCCESSION  IN  FORAGE  CROPS.       259 

In  the  succession  those  pasture  crops  could  be  given 
the  preference  which  grow  again  and  again,  as,  for 
instance,  alfalfa  and  the  sorghums.  For  cattle  the 
more  important  of  these  forage  crops  would  be  sor- 
ghum and  the  cowpea  in  summer,  and  alfalfa  in  win- 
ter. But  the  alfalfa  thus  pastured  in  winter  should 
be  grown  chiefly  in  the  late  summer  and  early 
autumn.  The  more  important  of  these  crops  for 
sheep  would  be  winter  rye,  the  sorghums,  the  sand 
vetch  and  rape.  And  for  swine  the  most  suitable 
pasture  crops  would  be  alfalfa,  soy  beans,  cowpeas 
and  rape. 

Succession  in  Section  No.  8. — In  Section  No. 
8  the  succession  in  forage  crops  is  varied  and  com- 
prehensive, more  so,  probably,  than  in  any  other 
part  of  the  United  States.  It  includes  native  grasses 
and  nearly  all  the  cultivated  varieties  that  are  grown 
in  permanent  pastures,  clovers  in  all  the  important 
varieties,  vetches  in  several  varieties,  as  the  winter, 
the  common  and  the  sand  vetch,  alfalfa,  mixed 
grains,  rape,  cabbage  and  artichokes.  The  soils  of 
this  section  are  possessed  of  unsurpassed  adaptation 
for  growing  clover  in  any  of  its  varieties,  and  also 
for  growing  all,  or  nearly  all,  the  grasses  that  are 
grown  in  western  Europe.  And  the  moist  charac- 
ter of  the  happy  climate  would  seem  to  keep  these 
growing  and  therefore  succulent  during  much  of 
the  year.  It  would  be  possible,  therefore,  to  secure 
succession  in  forage  from  grasses  alone.  It  is  also 
probable  that  rape  could  be  so  managed  that  it  would 
produce  forage  during  much  of  the  year,  and  the 
same  is  true  of  mixed  grains.  In  growing  these, 
great  use  could  be  made  of  peas  or  vetches,  or  of 
both,  %  because  of  the  marked  adaptability  of  the 


260  FORAGE    CROPS. 

country  for  growing  them.  It  would  also  be  an 
ideal  land  for  artichokes  because  of  the  long  season 
for  pasturing  them  off.  In  this  section,  therefore, 
the  question  is  not  so  much  which  are  the  crops  that 
may  be  grown  in  succession,  as  which  are  the  crops 
which  shall  be  chosen  for  being  thus  grown.  Cattle 
could  be  kept  very  nicely  nearly  all  the  year  on  grass 
and  clover  pastures,  and  the  same  is  true  of  sheep, 
and  they  could  be  finished  on  rape  in  the  autumn  or 
in  the  early  spring.  Swine  could  feed  on  clover, 
alfalfa  and  artichokes  nearly  all  the  year,  and  they 
could  be  finished  on  peas. 


CHAPTER  XIII. 

SHEEP   PASTURES   GROWN   AT   THE   MINNESOTA   UNI- 
VERSITY  EXPERIMENT   FARM. 

During  the  past  three  years  experiments  have 
been  conducted  in  growing  various  kinds  of  pasture 
for  sheep  at  the  Minnesota  University  experiment 
farm.  This  work  was  begun  and  carried  out  under 
the  supervision  of  the  author.  It  is  unique  in  char- 
acter and  the  results  obtained  have  been  not  a  little 
remarkable.  Only  the  merest  outline  of  the  work 
can  be  given  here,  though  every  detail  thereof  should 
be  of  interest  to  the  flockmaster. 

Objects  Sought. — The  following  are  chief 
among  the  objects  sought  in  the  experiment,  viz. : 
i,  to  ascertain  the  extent  to  which  sheep  may  be 
confined  with  safety  to  pastures  other  than  those 
provided  by  the  ordinary  grasses  without  endanger- 
ing their  good  health;  2,  to  ascertain  the  various 
plants  that  are  the  most  suitable  to  provide  such 
pastures,  and  also  the  relative  suitability  of  these; 
3,  to  ascertain  the  best  modes  of  growing  them  and 
of  pasturing  them  when  grown ;  4,  to  ascertain  the 
maximum  amount  of  sustenance  that  could  thus  be 
procured  for  sheep  under  the  conditions,  or,  in  other 
words,  to  find  out  how  many  sheep  could  be  sus- 
tained on  a  limited  area  and  also  the  mutton  product 
therefrom  for  the  season;  and,  5,  to  ascertain  the 
influence  of  such  a  system  of  pasturage  upon  the 
cleaning  of  the  land  and  also  upon  the  maintenance 
of  fertility  in  the  same. 

261 


262  FORAGE    CROPS. 

It  is  evident  that  some  of  these  problems, 
because  of  their  complicated  character,  can  never  be 
carried  to  what  may  be  termed  an  absolute  demon- 
stration. Approximate  results  only  can  be  obtained 
and  that  is  all  that  is  claimed  for  the  findings  that 
are  submitted  below. 

Outline  of  the  Experiments. — The  experiments 
were  begun  in  the  spring  of  1895.  During  that 
year  some  fifty-three  head  of  sheep  and  lambs  were 
pastured  for  many  days  on  the  forage  that  grew  on 
two  and  three-fourths  acres  of  land.  The  pasture 
consisted  of  winter  rye,  rape,  peas  and  oats,  vetches 
and  oats  and  sorghum.  During  the  intervals  in 
which  these  plants  failed  to  provide  a  sufficiency  of 
grazing,  the  sheep  were  given  grass  pasture. 

In  1896,  an  average  of  eighty-six  head  of  sheep 
and  lambs  were  grazed  during  the  whole  season  of 
pasturage  on  ten  acres  of  land.  Nearly  two-thirds 
of  these  were  mature  sheep.  The  grazing  began 
May  ist  and  it  ended  November  ist.  The  pasture 
was  not  supplemented  by  any  grain  except  for  a 
short  period  at  the  first,  when  the  change  was  being 
made  from  dry  winter  food  to  succulent  pasture. 
In  addition  to  the  pasture,  8.60  tons  of  cured  fodder 
and  7.30  tons  of  soiling  food  were  taken  from  the 
same  ten  acres.  The  cured  fodder  consisted  of  hay 
made  from  grass,  peas  and  oats,  and  the  first  cutting 
of  sorghum.  The  sorghum  was  injured  by  rain 
while  it  was  being  cured  and  was  not  much  relished 
by  the  sheep.  The  chief  of  the  crops  grown  were 
winter  rye,  fall  and  spring  sown  peas  and  oats,  rape, 
corn  and  rape,  sorghum,  Kaffir  corn,  cabbage,  rape 
and  winter  rye. 

In  1897,  an  average  of  ninety-three  head  of 


SHEEP    PASTURES.  263 

sheep  and  lambs  were  pastured  on  practically  the 
same  ten  acres  from  April  26th  to  November  5th.  No 
grain  food  was  given  after  the  change  had  been 
safely  made  from  a  winter  to  a  summer  diet,  except 
to  eight  rams  and  ram  lambs  that  were  being  reared 
for  sale.  In  addition  to  the  pastures,  10.33  t°ns  °f 
dry  fodder  were  obtained  from  the  land  and  also 
10.39  tons  °f  soiling  food.  The  fodder  was  made 
up  of  grass  hay,  pea  and  oat  hay,  corn  well 
advanced  in  growth  and  mature  sorghum.  It  was 
all  of  excellent  quality.  The  varieties  sown  were 
substantially  the  same  as  those  sown  the  previous 
year,  but  there  were  some  variations  in  the  combina- 
tions sown  and  in  the  order  of  the  succession. 

The  Sheep  While  on  Pasture. — In  1896  and 
also  in  1897,  two  and  one-half  acres  of  the  ten  acres 
were  in  grass  pasture.  In  1896,  clover  predomi- 
nated in  the  pasture,  and  in  1897  timothy  was  in  the 
ascendant.  The  sheep  were  grazed  on  this  pasture 
wjien  the  other  pastures  were  too  wet  because  of  rain 
or  dew.  The  sheep  barn,  a  view  of  which  is  repre- 
sented in  Fig.  25,  stood  in  the  portion  laid  down  to 
grass.  In  the  heat  of  the  day  the  sheep  were  given 
the  benefit  of  the  cool  shade  furnished  by  the  barn. 
At  night  they  were  also  inclosed  in  the  yards  sur- 
rounding the  barn  to  protect  them  from  dogs.  Cor- 
ralling them  thus  at  night  would,  of  course,  not  be 
necessary  under  ordinary  conditions,  nor  is  it  any 
advantage  to  their  well-being. 

SUCCESSION  IN  THE  CROPS  GROWN. 

Winter  rye  was  ready  for  being  pastured  sev- 
eral days  in  advance  of  blue  grass  and  fully  four  to 


264 


FORAGE    CROPS. 


SHEEP    PASTURES.  265 

five  weeks  of  any  of  the  spring  sown  cereals  (Fig.  26 
shows  sheep  pasturing  on  rye),  and,  with  the  excep- 
tion of  cabbage,  it  was  the  last  crop  that  furnished 
good  pasture  in  the  autumn.  It  was  also  found  that 
rye  sown  early  enough  in  the  autumn  to  become 
firmly  rooted  was  ready  to  pasture  much  earlier  and 
provided  pasture  more  abundantly  than  rye  put  in 
so  late  that  it  had  not  become  so  rooted  before  the 
closing  in  of  winter.  Rye  and  grass  pastures, 
therefore,  carried  the  sheep  from  the  opening  of 
spring  until  some  time  early  in  June.  The  spring 
sown  winter  rye  did  not  prove  altogether  satisfac- 
tory as  a  pasture.  It  grew  luxuriantly  for  a  time, 
but  it  ceased  to  grow  when  settled  warm  weather 
came.  Later,  it  turned  russet  in  color  and 
finally  died. 

Peas  and  oats  were  the  next  crop  ready.  They 
were  sown  as  soon  as  the  work  could  be  done  after 
the -dawn  of  spring.  The  pasture  which  they  fur- 
nished was  greatly  relished  by  the  sheep.  In  one 
instance  the  pasture  was  grazed  down  three  times 
in  succession  with  an  interval  of  two  weeks  or  more 
between  the  periods  of  grazing.  Rape  was  then 
sown  on  the  same  ground.  In  another  instance  they 
were  grazed  off  three  times  in  succession,  as  just 
stated,  after  which  the  clover  and  timothy  sown  at 
the  same  time  as  the  grain  were  given  time  to  gather 
strength  to  fortify  the  plants  against  the  rigors  of 
winter,  and  in  other  instances  the  peas  and  oats  were 
grazed  down  once,  after  which  the  second  growth 
was  mown  for  hay.  Figure  27  represents  a  rape  and 
clover  pasture.  The  "catch"  of  the  grass  seeds  thus 
obtained  was  all  that  could  be  desired.  But  the 
tests  thus  made  have  covered  only  two  seasons.  In 


266 


FORAGE    CROPS. 


SHEEP    PASTURES.  267 

1897,  the  clover  blossomed  and  produced  much  seed, 
but  the  crop  was  left  to  enter  the  winter  undisturbed. 

Rape  was  the  next  pasture  ready.  It,  too,  was 
sown  as  soon  as  the  ground  was  suitable,  and  it  was 
sufficiently  grown  for  being  grazed  just  after  the 
first  grazing  of  the  peas  and  oats.  In  one  instance 
it  was  eaten  down  four  times  during  the  season. 
Figure  28  represents  the  grazing  of  this  crop  the  sec- 
ond time  it  was  eaten  down.  In  another  instance  it 
was  grazed  off  twice  and  then  the  clover  sown  along 
with  the  rape  was  allowed  to  grow  undisturbed.  In 
yet  other  instances  it  was  allowed  to  approach  the 
maximum  of  full  growth,  and  after  being  grazed 
down  was  followed  by  such  crops  as  sorghum,  or 
cabbage.  More  food  was  obtained  from  the  last 
named  method,  but  it  also  involved  more  labor. 
Rape  was  also  sown  at  various  times  as  the  season 
progressed,  so  that  a  reserve  of  rape  pasture  wras 
usually  on  hand  when  wanted,  from  the  middle  of 
June  until  the  end  of  October.  In  point  of  pala- 
tability  rape  should  probably  be  given  the  first  place 
among  the  forage  plants  that  were  grown. 

The  first  grazing  of  the  rape  was  no  sooner 
completed  than  corn,  or  corn  and  rape  sown 
together,  was  ready.  Corn  that  had  reached  a  foot 
in  hight  never  grew  again  when  eaten  down.  In 
some  instances,  therefore,  this  crop  wrhen  consumed 
was  at  once  followed  by  another  crop,  as  rape,  sor- 
ghum, or  rape  and  winter  rye.  But  in  one  instance 
the  rape  was  allowed  to  produce  a  second  growth, 
with  results  that  were  on  the  whole  encouraging. 
More  pasture  was  obtained,  however,  from  the  two 
crops  grown  in  succession  than  from  the  two  suc- 
cessive Brazings  of  the  one  crop,  but  more  labor  was 


268 


FORAGE    CROPS. 


fc  § 


SHEEP    PASTURES.  269 

also  involved.  The  corn  crop  was  ready  for  being 
grazed  in  about  six  to  nine  weeks  from  the  date 
of  sowing. 

As  soon  as  the  corn  was  grazed  down,  sorghum 
was  ready.  It  was  sown  alone  in  nearly  all 
instances,  but  on  two  or  three  occasions  rape  seed 
was  mixed  with  the  sorghum  seed.  The  advantage 
of  thus  growing  the  two  plants  together  was  not 
clearly  apparent,  as  either  the  rape  or  the  sorghum 
was  pretty  certain  to  crowd  the  other,  but  the  plan 
should  not  be  condemned  without  further  trial.  Fig- 
ure 29  shows  sorghum  and  rape,  the  third  pasture 
crop  grown  on  the  land  for  the  season.  The  first  was 
rape  and  the  second  was  corn  and  rape.  In  one 
instance  the  sorghum  was  mown  and  then  pastured. 
In  some  instances  it  was  grazed  down  three  times 
in  succession  and  in  others  but  twice.  Whenever 
it  was  deemed  expedient,  the  sorghum  was  followed 
by  winter  rye  sown  to  provide  pasture  for  the  fol- 
lowing year,  as  the  sorghum  ceased  to  furnish  any 
more  pasture  after  the  first  frost.  Sorghum  is  not 
relished  so  highly  as  some  of  the  other  pasture  plants 
grown,  but  when  the  animals  are  confined  to  it  they 
consume  it  with  an  evident  relish,  and  they  make 
much  better  progress  than  if  confined  to  dry  and 
inadequate  grass  pastures. 

The  last  crop  grown  in  the  succession  was 
cabbage.  The  seed  was  sown  in  rows  thirty  inches 
distant  and  at  various  times.  On  one  plot  it  was  sown 
as  early  as  May  nth  and  on  another  as  late  as  July 
8th.  The  late  heading  varieties  sown  early  proved 
the  most  satisfactory,  but  this  may  not  hold  true  of 
localities  in  which  the  cabbage  worm  (Pieris  rapae) 
is  not  troublesome.  This  crop  proved  more  satis- 


270 


FORAGE    CROPS. 


SHEEP    PASTURES. 

factory,  all  things  considered,  than  any  other  in  pro- 
viding pasture  in  the  autumn  after  the  arrival  of 
heavy  frosts.  Severe  frosts  injure  cabbage  less 
than  rape.  If  given  time  enough,  sheep  will  eat  the 
cabbage  down  close  to  the  stem  and  with  almost 
no  waste. 

I  Then  to  Begin  Pasturing. — The  stage  of 
advancement  in  the  various  crops  at  which  the  pas- 
turing'ought  to  commence  will  depend  upon  various 
conditions,  as,  for  instance,  the  area  to  be  pastured, 
the  habit  of  growth  in  the  crop  and  the  char- 
acter of  the  season.  The  larger  the  area  to  be 
eaten  down,  the  greater  the  tendency  in  the  plants 
to  sprout  up  again,  and  the  more  moist  the  sea- 
son, the  sooner  may  the  stock  be  turned  into 
the  pasture  to  graze  upon  it. 

The  pasturing  of  winter  rye  in  the  spring 
should  begin  ordinarily  as  soon  as  the  rye  has  begun 
to  grow  vigorously,  and  the  aim  in  pasturing  should 
be  to  keep  it  short.  It  is  then  more  relished  and  it 
also  furnishes  more  pasture.  In  no  instance  should 
it  be  allowed  to  reach  the  stage  of  shooting  up  to 
form  the  ear  before  it  is  grazed  down. 

Peas  and  oats  should  not  be  allowed  to  get  more 
than  six  to  ten  inches  high  before  the  pasturing  is 
commenced,  and  when  the  area  sown  is  large,  it  may 
be  advantageous  to  turn  in  the  stock  before  the  crop 
reaches  the  hight  of  six  inches. 

The  pasturing  of  rape  may  begin  when  the 
plants  are,  say,  twelve  inches  above  the  ground,  but 
it  would  seem  to  be  true  that  more  pasture  will  be 
obtained  if  the  rape  is  allowed  to  attain  its  full 
growth  before  it  is  eaten  down,  and  the  pasture  thus 
obtained  is  probably  more  valuable.  If  more  than 


272 


FORAGE    CROPS. 


• 


SHEEP    PASTURES.  2/3 

one  growth  is  to  be  taken  from  the  plants  they 
should  not  be  grazed  off  closely. 

Corn,  since  it  does  not  sprout  again,  except 
when  grazed  while  quite  young,  should  be  allowed 
to  reach  the  hight  of  several  inches  before'  the  sheep 
are  given  access  to  it.  If  they  should  break  much 
of  it  down  while  pasturing  upon  it,  they  will  con- 
sume not  a  little  of  what  has  been  so  broken  in  the 
cured  form. 

The  pasturing  of  sorghum  should  begin  at  an 
earlier  stage,  relatively,  than  the  pasturing  of  corn, 
in  fact,  any  time  after  the  plants  have  become  so 
firmly  rooted  that  they  cannot  be  pulled  up  by  the 
sheep  while  being  grazed.  But  it  may  be  deferred 
to  a  later  period  if  circumstances  should  call  for 
such  a  course. 

Cabbage  should  be  allowed  to  attain  a  maxi- 
mum of  growth  before  the  grazing  is  commenced. 
If  matured  before  the  desired  season  of  pasturing, 
a  portion  of  the  leaves  on  each  plant  will  wither  and 
waste  away,  which  means  a  loss  of  food  in  propor- 
tion to  the  extent  of  the  wasting  of  the  leaves. 

When  grazing  down  such  of  these  pasture 
crops  as  grow  up  again  and  again,  more  pasture  will 
be  obtained  when  the  grazing  is  done  quickly  and 
in  successive  periods,  with  an  interval  between  these, 
than  when  animals  are  allowed  to  remain  continu- 
ously on  the  pastures.  In  other  words,  alternation 
in  pasturing  such  crops  is  better  than  continuous 
pasturing. 

Comparative  Yields. — The  amount  of  pasture 

furnished    by    the    respective    crops,    as  was  to  be 

expected,  varied  from  time  to  time  and  from  year  to 

year.  „  The  following,  however,  were  the  maximum 

18 


274  FORAGE    CROPS. 

yields  obtained  from  the  various  plants  named  below 
in  a  single  season.  They  represent  the  pasture 
obtained  from  one-fourth  of  an  acre.  Rape  alone 
furnished  pasture  sufficient  for  one  matured  sheep 
for  356  days;  corn  followed  by  sorghum  for  507 
days;  rye  followed  by  sorghum  for  590  days,  and 
cabbage  alone  for  762  days.  One  acre  of  cabbage 
of  similar  development  would  have  furnished  food 
enough  to  sustain  one  sheep  for  eight  years  and 
128  days. 

But  these  yields  must  not,  by  any  means,  be 
regarded  as  the  largest  that  may  be  obtained  from 
any  of  these  crops.  The  soil  on  which  they  grew 
was  comparatively  infertile.  Under  the  most 
favorable  conditions  it  would  be  possible  to  obtain 
from  rape,  for  instance,  not  less  than  three  times 
the  amount  of  pasture  mentioned  above.  And  it 
should  also  be  borne  in  mind  that  the  crops  which 
furnish  the  largest  yields  of  pasture  are  not  neces- 
sarily the  most  productive  in  mutton  and  wool.  The 
food  constituents  in  some  are  much  richer  than 
in  others. 

Mode  of  Hurdling. — While  pasturing  off  the 
various  plats,  movable  hurdles  were  used.  The  fol- 
lowing is  a  description  of  these  hurdles :  Each  panel 
is  composed  of  four  boards.  The  one  at  the  bot- 
tom is  6xi  inches  and  the  others  are  4x1  inches. 
Across  these  are  nailed  three  slats  or  crossbars  4x1 
inches.  Two  of  these  are  nailed  six  inches  from  the 
ends  of  the  panel  and  on  the  same  side  of  it,  one 
being  at  each  end.  The  third  is  nailed  across  the 
center  and  on  the  other  side  of  the  panel.  The  bottom 
space  thus  formed  is  six  inches,  the  middle  space 
six  and  one-fourth  inches  and  the  top  space  seven 


SHEEP    PASTURES.  275 

and  three-fourths  inches.  The  second  board  from 
the  top  is  cut  off  flush  with  the  outer  edges  of  each 
end  crossbar. 

The  headpiece  consists  of  three  boards  nailed 
together  so  as  to  form  a  triangle.  The  bottom 
board,  6xi  inches,  is  three  feet  six  inches  long  on 
the  ground  side.  The  two  upright  pieces  are  4x1 
inches  and  four  feet  long.  One  is  nailed  on  each 
side  of  the  sole  piece  and  they  cross  each  other  at 
about  six  inches  from  the  upper  ends.  Two  notches 
are  cut,  one  above  and  one  below.  These  are  two 
inches  wide  and  three  inches  deep.  They  receive 
and  hold  the  top  and  bottom  boards  of  the  panels 
when  in  place.  Wrought  or  wire  nails  are  used. 

When  these  hurdles  are  in  place,  the  headpiece 
stands  at  right  angles  to  the  panel.  But  strong 
winds  will  sometimes  tip  over. such  a  fence.  To 
prevent  this,  short  stakes  made  of  strips  of  inch 
boards  may  be  driven  down  at  intervals  alongside 
the  headpiece  and  fastened  to  it  with  a  nail,  which 
should  not  be  clinched,  so  that  the  stake  may  be 
easily  loosened  when  the  fence  is  lifted.  Such  a 
fence  is  not  costly.  It  can  be  quickly  and  easily 
moved.  It  can  be  stored  away  with  but  little  labor 
when  not  in  use,  and  if  handled  with  due  care  it 
would  last  for  many  years.  But  there  would  be 
more  wear  to  it  if  the  boards  in  the  headpiece  were 
made  of  thicker  lumber,  as  they  would  not  then  split 
so  readily  at  the  notches.  It  is  possible,  however, 
that  other  styles  of  hurdles  may  yet  be  introduced 
that  will  better  serve  the  end  sought. 

Character  of  the  Soil. — The  soil  is  what  may 
be  termed  rolling  in  character.  In  composition  it 
is  a  sandy  loam  on  the  surface.  In  texture  it  is  so 


2/6  FORAGE    CROPS. 

open  that  much  trouble  was  caused  by  the  washing 
of  the  soil  through  heavy  rains.  In  depth,  the  sur- 
face soil  varies  from,  say,  six  inches  on  the  high 
ground  to  eighteen  inches  on  the  low  ground. 
Underneath  the  subsoil  is  chiefly  gravel  and  sand 
admixed.  The  crops,  therefore,  as  can  easily  be 
imagined,  soon  showed  signs  of  languishing  on  the 
higher  ground  when  the  weather  became  dry  and  hot. 

Nor  was  this  quick-growing,  though  naturally 
hungry  soil  in  a  high  state  of  fertility.  From  the 
beginning  of  1891  to  1895,  no  manure  had  been 
applied,  notwithstanding  that  a  grain  crop  had  been 
taken  from  the  land  every  year.  In  1897  a  mod- 
erate dressing  of  barnyard  manure  was  applied.  No 
additional  fertilizer  was  used  during  all  these  years, 
save  on  inconsiderable  portions  to  aid  in  growing 
certain  special  crops. 

Character  of  the  Weather. — During  the  three 
seasons  of  the  experiment,  the  weather  was,  on  the 
whole,  favorable  to  the  growth  of  these  pasture 
crops.  Showers  fell  with  a  fair  amount  of  regu- 
larity. In  some  instances  the  moisture  from  the 
same  was  superabundant,  while  at  other  times  there 
were  intervals  of  several  weeks  between  the  show- 
ers. With  less  favorable  weather  the  results  could 
not  have  proved  so  satisfactory.  But  in  justice  to 
the  system  it  ought  to  be  stated  here,  that  in  dry 
seasons  the  results  from  growing  sheep  pastures  as 
in  this  experiment  would  be  relatively  even  more 
favorable  when  compared  with  results  from  grazing 
grass  pastures  only,  than  they  would  be  in  a  wet 
season. 

Necessity  for  Some  Grass  Pasture. — When 
growing  these  crops  for  pasture,  it  will  be  necessary 


SHEEP    PASTURES.  277 

to  have  a  reserve  grass  pasture  on  which  to  graze 
the  sheep  as  occasion  may  require.  For  instance, 
if  sheep  are  grazed  upon  these  crops  when  wet  with 
rain  or  even  heavy  dews,  the  treading  of  the  land 
at  such  times  will  tend  to  impact  it  and  to  break 
down  and  befoul  the  food.  It  will  also  tend  to 
saturate  the  fleece  with  water,  more  especially  when 
the  food  is  rank  and  tall.  To  avoid  these  hazards, 
a  grass  pasture  should  be  on  hand  where  the 
sheep  may  graze  after  rain  and  where  they  may 
graze  and  rest  at  night.  Such  a  pasture  is  always 
opportune,  as  when  an  interval  may  occur  during 
which  the  other  pastures  may  not  be  ready  for 
being  grazed,  and  the  variety  thus  furnished  is  also 
helpful. 

Health  of  the  Animals.— The  health  of  the 
animals  was  exceptionally  good.  Five  animals  only 
were  lost  during  the  three  seasons  of  pasturing.  Of 
these,  four  died  from  hoven  or  bloat  while  feeding 
on  the  clover  in  the  grass  pasture  in  the  spring  of 
1896.  The  fifth  animal  died  of  what  was  diagnosed 
as  pneumonia.  There  was  no  instance  of  bloat 
while  feeding  upon  the  other  foods. 

Effects  on  Weed  Growth.. — Growing  crops  as 
in  the  succession  given  above  proved  quite  destruc- 
tive to  weed  growth.  But  few  weeds  were  given 
time  to  mature  because  of  the  frequent  stirring  of 
the  land  and  also  because  of  the  cropping  down  by 
the  sheep.  It  is  doubtful  if  any  method  could  be 
devised  that  would  be  so  potent  in  quickly  subduing 
weeds  in  the  soil  and  at  so  little  cost.  Early  in  the 
season,  while  the  weeds  were  juicy  and  tender,  they 
were  usually  the  first  food  eaten  by  the  sheep.  But 
later,  some  varieties,  particularly  summer  grass 


2/8  FORAGE    CROPS. 

(Setaria  glauca)  were  not  consumed  so  eagerly.  But 
the  seed  pods  and  seed  heads  of  the  weeds  were  con- 
sumed wherever  these  had  been  produced.  The 
weeds  were  turned  into  mutton. 

Influence  on  Fertility. — The  influence  on  the 
fertility  of  the  soil  was  marked.  Since  but  little 
of  the  food  was  removed  from  the  pastures,  the 
product  of  the  same  went  back  on  the  land  and  in 
a  readily  available  form.  When  sheep  are  thus 
grazed  upon  land,  if  in  addition  to  the  pasture  they 
are  also  fed  some  grain  or  oil  cake,  the  soil  must 
soon  become  rich  in  fertility  and  virtually  without 
labor,  for  the  return  in  mutton  and  wool  should  in 
itself  bring  a  direct  net  profit. 

Sixteen  Sheep  Pastured  on  One  Acre. — A  sec- 
ond experiment  was  carried  on,  which  also  formed 
a  part  of  the  first  experiment.  It  was  an  experi- 
ment within  an  experiment.  It  consisted  of  pastur- 
ing sixteen  animals  on  one  acre  as  far  as  it  was 
found  practicable  throughout  the  growing  season. 
Of  these,  six  were  dams  and  ten  we^e  lambs.  The 
acre  was  divided  into  quarters,  and  the  pasturing 
alternated  on  these.  During  two  successive  years 
was  this  experiment  continued,  beginning  with  1895. 
It  was  not  found  practicable  to  keep  the  sheep  con- 
fined to  the  acre  through  all  the  season.  There  were 
some  short  intervals  each  year  during  which  they 
had  to  be  kept  on  other  pasture,  and  in  some 
instances  had  other  sheep  to  be  brought  in  to  eat 
down  the  excess  of  pasture.  After  balancing  the 
pasture  borrowed  against  the  pasture  given  away, 
it  was  found  that  the  acre  thus  pastured  in  1895  and 
also  in  1896  had  sustained  the  sixteen  animals  for 
about  five  months.  With  soils  rich  and  productive, 


SHEEP    PASTURES.  279 

the  results  could  doubtless  be  considerably  exceeded. 
Xo  grain  was  fed  during  the  experiment,  save  for  a 
few  days  at  the  first,  when  the  change  was  being 
made  from  winter  to  summer  food.  The  ten  lambs 
made  an  increase  in  live  weight  of  560^  pounds 
while  pasturing  on  the  acre  in  1895,  and  of  532 
pounds  while  pasturing  on  the  same  in  1896. 

Conclusions. — The  following  are  prominent 
among  the  conclusions  that  may  be  drawn  from 
the  experiment  : 

1.  That  sheep  may  be  carried  safely  through 
the  summer  when  confined  chiefly  to  pastures  other 
than   the   common   grasses.      The   uniformly  good 
health  of  the  sheep  during  the  three  years  of  the 
experiment  was  one  of  the  most  encouraging  of  its 
features.     When  sheep  can  be  confined  to  such  pas- 
tures in  the  early  summer,  the  danger  from  parasitic 
troubles  will    be    materially    decreased,    and  more 
especially  with  the  lambs. 

2.  That  in  the  United  States  and  Canada  a 
great  variety  of  plants  may  be  grown  to  provide 
such  pastures.     Those  which  are  the  most  suitable 
for  each  locality  will  vary  with  the  conditions. 

3.  That  among  the  plants  adapted  to  such  a 
use,  winter  rye,  sorghum  and  rape  are  worthy  of  a 
prominent  place.     Each  in  its  season  produces  a 
large  amount  of  pasture.     Each  can  be  grown  in 
nearly  all  parts  of  the  United  States  and  Canada 
possessed  of  an  arable  soil,  and  each  is  the  comple- 
ment of  the  other  two.     Winter  rye  furnishes  pas- 
ture in  the  spring  and  in  the  autumn,  but  chiefly 
in  the  spring.     Sorghum  is  at  its  best  in  the  hot 
weather  of  summer,  and  rape  is  emphatically  the 
autumn   pasture  plant.      With   these  three  and   a 


28O  FORAGE    CROPS. 

grass  pasture,  sheep  can  be  kept  on  succulent  food 
all  the  season. 

4.  That  with  the  aid  of  such  pastures  a  much 
larger  number  of  sheep  can  be  kept  upon  an  arable 
farm  than  could  be  sustained  by  grass  pastures  with- 
out the  aid  of  these.     The  extent  of  such  increase 
will  depend  upon  a  number  of  conditions. 

5.  That  such  a  system  of  pasturage  is  eminently 
helpful    in    destroying   weeds    and   also    eminently 
beneficial  to  the  land,  as  explained  above. 

The  Principle  in  the  Experiment. — It  may  be 
mentioned  here,  and  with  much  propriety,  that  this 
experiment  is  not  intended  to  be  an  absolute  guide 
for  the  farmer.  The  chief  aim  sought  in  carrying 
it  on  was  to  demonstrate  the  possibility  and  the 
practicability  of  pasturing  sheep  during  the  greater 
portion  of  the  season  on  pastures  other  than  grass, 
that  is  to  say,  on  pastures  sown  expressly  for  the 
purpose.  The  principle  thus  sought  has  been  dem- 
onstrated, notwithstanding  that  many  things  about 
it  are  yet  undetermined,  as,  for  instance,  the  relative 
suitability  of  certain  foods  for  the  purpose,  and  the 
very  best  methods  of  growing  them,  also  the  rela- 
tive profit  in  pasturing  sheep  thus  as  compared  with 
pasturing  them  on  grass  only.  Some  of  these,  of 
course,  can  never  be  determined  other  than  in  an 
approximate  way. 

The  Application  of  the  Principle. — The  appli- 
cation-of  the  principle  must  be  made  by  the  flock- 
master  himself,  and  in  consonance  with  the  nature 
of  his  surroundings.  For  instance,  he  must  ascer- 
tain, first,  which  of  these  summer  crops  are  the  best 
adapted  to  his  conditions ;  second,  how  many  of  them 
he  will  grow  and  the  relative  acreage  of  each ;  third, 


SHEEP    PASTURES.  28 1 

the  succession  at  which  he  shall  grow  them,  and, 
fourth,  the  nature  and  extent  of  the  fencing 
required.  Though  the  principle  is  applicable  in  all 
the  arable  sections  of  the  United  States  and  Canada, 
the  application  of  it  will  vary  with  the  surroundings, 
and  it  will  vary  from  year  to  year  with  the  specific 
requirements  for  that  particular  season. 

There  are  but  few  flockmasters,  however,  pos- 
sessed of  tillable  land  who  cannot  embody  the  prin- 
ciple, to  some  extent  at  least,  in  their  practice.  They 
can  grow  one  or  more  of  these  foods  to  pasture  the 
sheep  on  when  the  grasses  are  dry.  That  alterna- 
tion in  grazing  off  the  pastures  may  be  possible,  the 
fields  may  either  be  permanently  fenced,  or  movable 
fences  may  be  used.  The  greatest  convenience  and 
profit  will  most  probably  be  found  in  combining  the 
two  ideas,  that  is  to  say,  in  having  some  fields  long 
rather  than  broad  enclosed  with  permanent  fences, 
and  then  using  some  portable  fence  to  be  placed 
across  the  narrow  fields  as  occasion  may  require. 
\Yith  winter  rye,  sorghum,  rape  and  a  grass  pas- 
ture, sheep  can  be  supplied  with  succulent  food  from 
spring  until  the  advent  of  winter.  In  some  seasons 
one  of  these  along  with  grass  may  suffice,  in  other 
seasons  two  of  them,  and  yet,  again,  all  three  may 
be  necessary.  But  various  other  plants  may  yet  be 
introduced  which  will  possess  even  superior  adapta- 
tion in  providing  summer  pasture  for  sheep. 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 


FIG.  PAGE. 

1.  Rape  Plant  Grown  for  Seed,  Frontispiece 

2.  Sheep  Pasturing  on  First  Growth  of  Corn  and  Rape     n 

3.  Second  Growth  of  Rape  Sown  with  Corn  23 

4.  Sorghum  Grown  for  Fodder      -        -        -        -        -    29 

5.  Sorghum  and  Rape  -------35 

6.  Sorghum  and  Rye,  Third  Crop     -----    37 

7.  Sheep  Pasturing  on  First  Growth  Sorghum     -        -        44 

8.  Sheep  Pasturing  on  Second  Growth  Sorghum     -        -     46 

9.  Red  Kaffir  Corn  Grown  for  Fodder  -        -        49 

10.  White  Kaffir  Corn  Grown  for  Fodder        -        -•        -     51 

11.  White  Milo  Maize  Grown  for  Fodder  53 

12.  Brown  Dhourra  Grown  for  Fodder     -        -        -        -     55 

13.  Jerusalem  Corn  Grown  for  Fodder  57 

14.  Eight  Plants  of  Green  Field  Pea        -        -        -        -  104 

15.  Field  Peas,  Noosack  Valley,  Wash  108 

1 6.  The  Sand  Vetch  in  Bloom  -        -        -        -        -        -  123 

17.  Sheep  Pasturing  on  Sand  Vetch     -  128 

18.  Sheep  Pasturing  on  Cowpeas      -----  132 

19.  Sheep  Pasturing  on  Soy  Beans        -  143 

20.  Sheep  on  Rape  Sown  for  Early  Pasture    -  148 

21.  Rape  Grown  for  Seed     •  -        -        -        -        -        -       151 

22.  Sheep  Pasturing  on  Cabbage      -----  167 

23.  Pearl  Millet  Grown  for  Fodder  199 

24.  Australian  Saltbush  ------  249 

25.  Sheep  Barn  -------      264 

26.  Sheep  Pasturing  on  Winter  Rye  -----  266 

27.  Rape  and  Clover  Pasture        -----      268 

28.  Sheep  Pasturing  on  Second  Growth  Rape  -  -  27o 

29.  Sorghum  and  Rape  Pasture    -----      272 


INDEX 


PAGE 

Alfalfa,  discussion  of.. 93-102 

described   94 

distribution  of 95 

place  in  the  rotation  for. .96 

soils  for 96 

preparing  the  soil  for 97 

sowing    98 

cultivating   100 

pasturing  100 

observations  on 102 

Alsike  clover . . .- 82-87 

Artichokes,  discussion  of 

212-220 

described   212 

reasons  for  growing 213 

objections   to   growing.. 213 

varieties   of 214 

distribution  of 214i 

place  in  the  rotation  for 

215 

soils  for 216 

preparing  the  soil  for.. 216 

planting   217 

cultivating   218 

pasturing    218 

observations  on 219 

Australian  salt  bush.. 248-251 

Beggar's  ticks 246-248 

Cabbage,  discussion  of, 

163-169 

distribution  of 163 

place  in  the  rotation  for  164 

soils  for 164 

preparing  the   soil   for..  164 

sowing1    165 

cultivating   166 

pasturing    168 

observations   on    169 

Cereals,  discussion  of, 

170-188 
Clover  olants,   discussion 

of  .." 67-102 

Clover,  alsike,  discussion 

of   82-87 

contrasted  with  the  me- 
dium red 82 

distribution  of 83 

place  in  the  rotation  for.. 83 
soils  for 83 


PAGE 

Clover — Continued 
preparing  the  soil  for — 84 

sowing 84 

pasturing    86 

observations  on 87 

Clover,    crimson,    discus- 
sion  of    88-93 

described  88 

distribution  of  88 

place  in  the  rotation  for. 90 

soils  for   90 

preparing  the  soil  for 91 

sowing    91 

cultivating   92 

pasturing    93 

observations  on 93 

Clover,  mammoth,  discus- 
sion of  78-82 

contrasted      with      me- 
dium red 78 

distribution  of 78 

place  in  the  rotation  for.. 79 

soils  for   79 

preparing  the  soil  for 80 

sowing    80 

cultivating   81 

pasturing    81 

observations  on  82 

Clover,  medium  red,  dis- 
cussion of 67-78 

distribution  of   68 

place  in  the  rotation  for.. 69 

soils  for 69 

preparing  the  soil  for 70 

sowing    71 

cultivating   74 

pasturing    75 

Common    vetch 115-121 

Corn    or    maize,     discus- 
sion of  8-27 

varieties   of 9 

habits  of  growth  of 9 

for  pasture  for  sheep 10 

for  pasture  for  cattle 10 

distribution  of   13 

place  in  the  rotation  for..  15 

soils  for   16 

preparing  the  soil  for 17 

fertilizers  for 19 


285 


286 


INDEX. 


PAGE 

Corn  or  maize — Continued 

sowing  or  planting 20 

sowing  rape  seed  with.. 21 

cultivating   22 

pasturing  24 

observations  on 25 

Cowpea,  discussion  of. 128-138 

described   129 

.    varieties  of 130 

distribution  of   131 

place  in  the  rotation  for, 

131 

soils    for    133 

preparing  the  soil  for.. 134 

sowing   135 

cultivating 136 

pasturing    137 

observations   on    137 

Crimson   clover 88-89 

Dhourra    50-52 

Field  pea 103-115 

Flat    pea 222-224 

Forage,  definition  of 1 

definitions,  exceptions  to.. 3 

why  not  grow  more 4 

reasons   for   growing 4 

who  should  grow 5 

outcome  from  growing 6 

plants  discussed   7 

Japan  clover  228-229 

Jerusalem  corn 52 

Kaffir  corn 50 

Kale   235-237 

Leguminous  plants  other 

than  clover 103-144 

Lupines 240-242 

Mammoth    clover    78-82 

Medium  red  clover 67-78 

Millets,  discussion  of.. 189-201 
classified  and  described.  190 

distribution  of 192 

place  in  the  rotation  of.. 194 

soils  for 195 

preparing  the  soil  for...  195 

fertilizers    for    197 

sowing    197 

cultivating   200 

pasturing    a 201 

Milo  maize 50 

Miscellaneous  plants,  dis- 
cussion   of    221-251 

Mixed  grains,   discussion 

of   180-187 

pastures   from    180 

distribution  of 181 


PAGE 

Mixed  grains— Continm  d 

soils  for  182 

preparing  the  soil  for... 182 

sowing    183 

cultivating  184 

pasturing 184 

observations  on 185 

Mustard   237-240 

Non-saccharine  sorghums, 

discussion   48-66 

varieties   of 48 

described    50 

comparison  between  52 

distribution  of   56 

place  in  the  rotation  for.. 59 

soils  for   ..: 59 

preparing  the  soil  for 60 

sowing  or  planting 61 

cultivating   63 

pasturing    66 

Pasturing    cereals    when 

young    187-188 

Peanuts    243-244 

Peas,  field,  discussion  of, 

103-115 

varieties  of 103 

habit  of  growth   105 

distribution    of 106 

place  in  the  rotation  for.107 

soils   for    109 

preparing  the  soil  for 110 

fertilizers  for Ill 

sowing    Ill 

pasturing    113 

Plants  discussed  7-8 

Rape,  discussion  of ..  ..145-163 
rapid   extension   in   the 

growth  of 146 

qualities    of 147 

described   148 

distribution  of   149 

growing  seed  150 

place  in  the  rotation  for. 150 

soils    for    152 

preparing  soils  for 153 

sowing    153 

Root  crops 202-212 

Rutabagas,  discussion  of, 

202-208 

distribution  of 203 

place  in  the  rotation  for.  203 

soil  for 204 

preparing  the  soil   for.. 204 

fertilizers    for    205 

sowing    .205 

cultivating  207 


INDEX. 


287 


Rutabagas— Continued 

pasturing 207 

Rye   171-180 

Sacaline    242-243 

Sainfoin   229-232 

Sand  vetch 121-128 

Sheep     pastures     at     the 
Minnesota    university 
experiment  farm... 261-281 
objects  sought  in  grow- 
ing   261 

outline  of 262 

grazing  off  263 

succession  in 263 

when  to  begin  grazing.. 271 
comparative  yields  of   ..273 

mode  of   handling 274 

character  of  the  soil.... 275 
weather  when  grazing.. 276 
some  grass  pasture  nec- 
essary     276 

health   of   the   animals.. 277 

effects   on   weeds 277 

influence   on   fertility    ..278 
sixteen    sheep    on    one 

acre   278 

conclusions  279 

principle  in  the  experi- 
ment   280 

application  of  the  prin- 
ciple     280 

Sorghum,  discussion  of. .28-47 

uses  of    28 

a  midsummer  pasture    ..30 

classes  of   31 

manner    of    growth 31 

power       to       withstand 

drouth   132 

not  much  grown  in  com- 
binations    32 

distribution  of 32 

place  in   the  rotation 34 

soils    for 34 

preparing  the  soil  for 36 

fertilizers  for    38 

sowing1  or  planting  3.° 

sowing  rape  with  41 

cultivating     42 

pasturing    43 

alleged  danger  from  pas- 
turing     45 

Soy  bean,  discussion  of, 

138-144 

described   139 

distribution  of 139 


PAGE 

Soy  bean — Continued 
place  in  the  rotation  for.140 

soils  for   141 

preparing  the  soil  for  ..141 

sowing 141 

.cultivating   143 

pasturing    144 

observations  on    144 

Spurry    232-235 

Succession       in       forage 
crops   discussed.... 252-260 

Sweet  clover   224-226 

Teosinte  52 

Turnips,      discussion      of 

208-212 

distribution  of 209 

place  in  rotation  for 209 

soil  suitable  for '. ...  209 

preparing  the  soil  for.. 209 

sowing    209 

pasturing 211 

observations  on 211 

Velvet  beans 244-246 

Vetch,   the  common,   dis- 
cussion of 115-121 

described    116 

distribution  of   117 

place  in  the  rotation  for.118 

soils   for    118 

preparing  the  soil  for  ..119 

sowing    119 

cultivating    120 

pasturing    120 

observation    121 

Vetch,   the   sand,    discus- 
sion  of    121-128 

described   121 

distribution  of   122 

place  in  the  rotation  for. 123 

soils    for    123 

sowing   123 

cultivating   126 

pasturing    126 

observations  on  128 

Winter  rye,  discussion  of, 

171-180 

distribution  of 172 

place  in  the  rotation  for.173 

soils  for   173 

preparing  the  soil  for...  174 

sowing  175 

cultivating    176 

pasturing    177 

observations  on    17* 

Yellow  clover   226-228 


OF  TUB 

UNIVERSITY 


STANDAUD   BOOKS. 


Commended  by  the  Greatest  Educators  of  Germany,  England  and  the  United 
States.    Endorsed  by  Officials,  and  adopted  in  many  Schools 

methods  in  education 

Art,  Real  Manual  Training,  Nature  Study.    Explaining  Processes 

whereby  Hand,  Eye  and  Mind  are  Educated  by  Means  that  Conserve  Vital- 

ity and  Develop  a  Union  of  Thought  and  Action 

By  3.  Ciberty  tadd 

Director  of  the  Public  School  of  Industrial  Art,  of  Manual  Training  and  Art  in  th& 
R.  C.  High  School,  and  in  several  Night  Schools,  Member  of  the  Art  Club,  Sketch 
Club,  and  Educational  Club,  and  of  the  Academy  of  Natural  Sciences,  Philadelphia, 

BASED  on  twenty-two  years'  experience  with  thousands  of 
children  and  hundreds  of  teachers.  "A  method  reasonable, 
feasible  and  without  great  cost,  adapted  to  all  grades, 
rrom  child  to  adult;  a  plan  that  can  be  applied  without  friction 
to  every  kind  of  educational  institution  or  to  the  family,  and 
limited  only  by  the  capacity  of  the  individual  ;  a  method  covered 
by  natural  law,  working  with  the  absolute  precision  of  nature  it- 
self ;  a  process  that  unfolds  the  capacities  of  children  as  unfold 
the  leaves  and  flowers  ;  a  system  that  teaches  the  pupils  that  they 
are  in  the  plan  and  part  of  life,  and  enables  them  to  work  out 
their  own  salvation  on  the  true  lines  of  design  and  work  as  illus- 
trated in  every  natural  thing." 

H  UJealtb  of  Illustration—  47$  Pictures  and  44  full-Page  Plates 

showing  children  and  teachers  practicing  these  new  methods  or 
their  work.  A  revelation  to  all  interested  in  developing  the  won- 
derful capabilities  of  young  or  old.  The  'pictures  instantly 
fascinate  every  child,  imbuing  it  with  a  desire  to  do  likewise. 
Teachers  and  parents  at  once  become  enthusiastic  and  delighted 
Over  the  Tadd  methods  which  this  book  enables  them  to  put  into 
practice.  Not  a  hackneyed  thought  nor  a  stale  picture.  Fresh, 
new,  practical,  scientific,  inspiring 

AMONG  THOSE  WHO  ENDORSE  THE  WORK  ARE 

HERBERT  SPENCER,  DR.  W.  W.  KEENE,  PRESIDENT  HUEY-Of  the  Phila 

nelphia  board  of  education. 
SECRETARY  GOTZE-Of  the  leading  pedagogical  society  of  Germany  (by  which 

the  book  is  being  translated  into  German  for  publication  at  Berlin). 
CHARLES  H.  THURBER-Professor  of  Pedagogy,  University  of  Chicago. 
TALCOT  r  VVILLIAMS-Editor  Philadelphia  Press,  Book  News,  etc. 
R.  H.  WEBSTER—  Superintendent  of  Schools,  San  Francisco 
DR.  A.  K.  WINSHIP—  Editoi  Journal  of  Education. 
W.  F.  SLOCU  M—  President  Colorado  College 
FREDERICK  WINSOB—  Head  master  The  Country  School  for  Boys  of  Baltimore* 

City,  under  the  auspices  of  Johns  Hopkins  University 
&BB™^^°™^'in£lpal  Ma11"1*1  Training  High  School,  Kansas  City. 
DR.  EDWARD  KIRK-Dean  University  of  Penn 
G'  W8°N~(Cai'*k  University>>  Professor  of  Psychology,  Bible  Normal 


ROMAN  STEINER—  Baltimore. 

SPECIFICATIONS  :  Size,  7%xlO}£  inches,  almost  a  quarto;  456  pages,  fine  plate 
paper,  beautifully  bound  in  cloth  and  boards,  cover  illuminated  in  gold;  weight, 
4%  Ibs.  Boxed,  price  $3.00  net,  postpaid  to  any  part  of  the  world. 

Orange  Judd  Company 

Hew  York,  N.  Y.,  52-54  Lafayette  Place.   Springfield,  Mass.,  Homestead  Bdg. 
Chicago,  HI.,  Marauette  Building. 


SENT  FREE  ON  APPLICATION 


I 


TAescriptive 


-      profusely  illustrated, 

S     giving-  full  descriptions  of 
the  best  works  on  the  fol- 
tfc     lowing  subjects : 


*d 


Catalog  of... 

*  * 

j     Containing:  loo  8vo.  pages,  X       N  fv  I        ^JV^/VL^     £ 

•?       nrofiisplv  ill,,<;tr5itpH     nnH  /  \         ^.  ^"^  ^*  ^""* 


£  WWW&M^ 

IB 

4,  Farm  and  Garden 

jj  Fruits,  Flowers,  Etc. 

Cattle,  Sheep  and  Swine 
Dogs,  Horses,  Riding,  Etc. 
Poultry,  Pigeons  and  Bees 
I    ^R  J|     !  Angling  and  Fishing 

— A^  Boating,  Canoeing  and  Sailing 

Field  Sports  and  Natural  History     |J| 
.w.  Hunting,  Shooting,  Etc. 

Architecture  and  Building  <fi 

jj  Landscape  Gardening  JJ 

Household  and  Miscellaneous 

w**w«?*^^  S 

Publishers  and  Importers 

i 

Orange  Judd  Company 

52  and  54  Lafayette  Place 
NEW  YORK 


BOOKS  WILL  BE  FORWARDED,  POSTPAID,  ON 
RECEIPT  OF  PRICE 


.9* 


STANDARD   BOOKS. 

Greenhouse  Construction. 

3y  Prof.  L.  R.  Taft.  A  complete  treatise  on  greenhouse 
structures  and  arrangements  of  the  various  forms  and 
styles  of  plant  houses  for  professional  florists  as  well 
as  amateurs.  All  the  best  and  most  approved  structures 
are  so  fully  and  clearly  described  that  anyone  who  desirep 
to  build  a  greenhouse  will  have  no  difficulty  in  deter- 
mining the  kind  best  suited  to  his  purpose.  The  modern 
and  most  successful  methods  of  heating  and  ventilating 
are  fully  treated  upon.  Special  chapters  are  devoted 
to  houses  used  for  the  growing  of  one  kind  of  plants 
exclusively.  The  construction  of  hotbeds  and  frames 
receives  appropriate  attention.  Over  one  hundred  excel- 
lent illustrations,  specially  engraved  for  this  work,  make 
every  point  clear  to  the  reader  and  add  considerably  to 
the  artistic  appearance  of  the  book.  Cloth.  12mo.  $1.50 

Greenhouse  Management. 

By  L.  R.  Taft.  This  book  forms  an  almost  indispensa- 
ble companion  volume  to  Greenhouse  Construction.  In 
it  the  author  gives  the  results  of  his  many  years'  expe- 
rience, together  with  that  of  the  most  successful  florists 
and  gardeners,  In  the  management  of  growing  plants 
under  glass.  So  minute  and  practical  are  the  various 
systems  and  methods  of  growing  and  forcing  roses,  vio- 
lets, carnations,  and  all  the  most  important  florists' 
plants,  as  well  as  fruits  and  vegetables  described,  that 
by  a  careful  study  of  this  work  and  the  following  of  its 
teachings,  failure  is  almost  impossible.  Illustrated. 
Cloth,  12mo $1.50 

Bulbs  and  Tuberous-Rooted  Plants. 

By  C.  L.  Allen.  A  comolete  treatise  on  the  history, 
description,  methods  of  propagation  and  full  directions 
for  the  successful  culture  of  bulbs  in  the  garden,  dwel- 
ling and  greenhouse.  As  generally  treated,  bulbs  are  an 
expensive  luxury,  while  when  properly  managed,  they 
a^ord  the  greatest  amount  of  pleasure  at  the  least  cost. 
The  author  of  this  book  has  for  many  years  made  bulb 
growing  a  specialty,  and  is  a  recognized  authority  on 
their  cultivation  and  management.  The  illustrations 
which  embellish  this  work  have  been  drawn  from  nature, 
and  have  been  engraved  especially  for  this  book.  The 
cultural  directions  are  plainly  stated,  practical  and  tc 
the  point.  Cloth,  12mo $1.50 

irrigation  Farming. 

By  Lute  Wilcox.  A  handbook  for  the  practical  applica- 
tion of  water  in  the  production  of  crops.  A  complete 
treatise  on  water  supply,  canal  construction,  reservoirs 
and  ponds,  pipes  for  irrigation  purposes,  flumes  and 
their  structure,  methods  of  applying  water,  irrigation  of 
field  crops,  the  garden,  the  orchard  and  vineyard;  wind- 
mills and  pumps,  appliances  and  contrivances.  Profuse- 
ly, handsomely  illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo.  .  .  11.50 


STANDARD  BOOKS. 

Landscape  Gardening. 

By  F.  A.  Waugh,  professor  of  horticulture,  University  of 
Vermont.  A  treatise  on  the  general  principles  governing 
outdoor  art;  with  sundry  suggestions  for  their  application 
in  the  commoner  problems  of  gardening.  Every  para- 
graph is  short,  terse  and  to  the  point,  giving  perfect 
clearness  to  the  discussions  at  all  points.  In  spite  of 
the  natural  difficulty  of  presenting  abstract  principles 
the  whole  matter  is  made  entirely  plain  even  to  the 
inexperienced  reader.  Illustrated,  12mo.  Cloth.  .  $  .50 

Fungi  and  Fungicides. 

By  Prof.  Clarence  M.  Weed.  A  practical  manual  con- 
cerning the  fungous  diseases  of  cultivated  plants  and 
the  means  of  preventing  their  ravages.  The  author  has 
endeavored  to  give  such  a  concise  account  of  the  most 
important  facts  relating  to  these  as  will  enable  the 
cultivator  to  combat  them  intelligently.  222  pp.,  90  ill., 
12mo.  Paper,  50  cents;  cloth.  ...  .  .  .  $1.00 

Talks  on  Manure. 

By  Joseph  Harris,  M.  S.  A  series  of  familiar  and  prac- 
tical talks  between  the  author  and  the  deacon,  the  doctor, 
and  other  neighbors,  on  the  whole  subject  of  manures 
and  fertilizers;  including  a  chapter  especially  written  for 
it  by  Sir  John  Bennet  Lawes  of  Rothamsted,  England. 
Cloth,  12mo $1.50 

Insects  and  Insecticides. 

By  Clarence  M.  Weed,  D.  Sc..  Prof,  of  entomology  and 
zoology,  New  Hampshire  college  of  agriculture.  A  prac- 
tical manual  concerning  noxious  insects,  and  methods  of 
preventing  their  injuries.  334  pages,  with  many  illus- 
trations. Cloth,  12mo $1.50 

Mushrooms.    How  to  Grow  Them. 

By  Wm.  Falconer.  This  is  the  most  practical  work  on 
the  subject  ever  written,  and  the  only  book  on  growing 
mushrooms  published  in  America.  The  author  describes 
how  he  grows  mushrooms,  and  how  they  are  grown  for 
profit  by  the  leading  market  gardeners,  and  for  home 
use  by  the  most  successful  private  growers.  Engravings 
drawn  from  nature  expressly  for  this  work.  Cloth.  $1.00 

Handbook  of  Plants  and  General  Horticulture. 

By  Peter  Henderson.  This  new  edition  comprises  about 
50  per  cent,  more  genera  than  the  former  one,  and  em- 
braces the  botanical  name,  derivation,  natural  order, 
etc.,  together  with  a  short  history  of  the  different  genera, 
concise  instructions  for  their  propagation  and  culture, 
and  al]  the  leading  local  or  common  English  names, 
together  with  a  comprehensive  glossary  of  botanical  and 
technical  terms.  Plain  instructions  are  also  given  for 
the  cultivation  of  the  principal  vegetables,  fruits  and 
fjewers.  Cloth,  large  8vo.  ...,,.  $3.00 


STANDARD   BOOKS. 

Ginseng:,  Its  Cultivation,   Harvesting,  Marketing:  and 
Market  Value. 

By  Maurice  G.  Rains,  with  a  short  account  of  its  history 
and  botanj'.  it  discusses  in  a  practical  way  how  to 
begin  with  either  seed  or  roots,  soil,  climate  and  location, 
preparation,  planting-  and  maintenance  of  the  beds,  arti- 
ficial propagation,  manures,  enemies,  selection  for  mar- 
ket and  for  improvement,  preparation  for  sale,  and  the 
profits  that  may  be  expected.  This  booklet  is  concisely 
written,  well  and  profusely  illustrated,  and  should  be 
in  the  hands  of  all  who  expect  to  grow  this  drug  to 
supply  the  export  trade,  and  to  add  a  new  and  profitable 
industry  to  their  farms  and  gardens,  without  interfering 
with  the  regular  work.  12mo $  .35 


Land  Draining. 


A  handbook  for  farmers  on  the  principles  and  practice 
of  draining,  by  Manly  Miles,  giving  the  results  of  his 
extended  experience  in  laying  tile  drains.  The  directions 
for  the  laying  out  and  the  construction  of  tile  drains 
will  enable  the  farmer  to  avoid  the  errors  of  imperfect 
construction,  and  the  disappointment  that  must  neces- 
sarily follow.  This  manual  for  practical  farmers  will 
also  be  found  convenient  for  references  in  regard  to  many 
questions  that  may  arise  in  crop  growing,  aside  from 
the  special  subjects  of  drainage  of  which  it  treats.  Cloth, 
12mo. $1.00 

Henderson's  Practical  Floriculture. 

By  Peter  Henderson.  A  guide  to  the  successful  propaga- 
tion and  cultivation  of  florists'  plants.  The  work  is  not 
one  for  florists  and  gardeners  only,  but  the  amateur's 
wants  are  constantly  kept  in  mind,  and  we  have  a  very 
complete  treatise  on  the  cultivation  of  flowers  under 
glass,  or  in  the  open  air,  suited  to  those  who  grow  flowers 
for  pleasure  as  well  as  those  who  make  them  a  matter 
of  trade.  Beautifully  illustrated.  New  and  enlarged 
edition.  Cloth,  12mo $1.50 

Tobacco  Leaf. 

By  J.  B.  Killebrew  and  Herbert  Myrick.  Its  Culture 
and  Cure,  Marketing  and  Manufacture,  A  practical 
handbook  on  the  most  approved  methods  in  growing, 
harvesting,  curing,  packing,  and  selling  tobacco,  with  an 
account  of  the  operations  in  every  department  of  tobacco 
manufacture.  The  contents  of  this  book  are  based  on 
actual  experiments  in  field,  curing  barn,  packing  house, 
factory  and  laboratory.  It  is  the  only  work  of  the  kind 
in  existence,  and  is  destined  to  be  the  standard  practical 
and  scientific  authority  on  the  whole  subject  of  tobacco 
for  many  years.  Upwards  of  500  pages  and  150  original 
engravings $2.00 


STANDARD   BOOKS. 


Play  and  Profit  in  My  Garden. 

By  E.  P.  Roe.  The  author  takes  us  to  his  garden  on 
the  rocky  hillsides  in  the  vicinity  of  West  Point,  and 
shows  us  how  out  of  it,  after  four  years'  experience,  he 
evoked  a  profit  of  $1,000,  and  this  while  carrying  on  pas- 
toral and  literary  labor.  It  is  very  rarely  that  so  much 
literary  taste  and  skill  are  mated  to  so  much  agricultural 
experience  and  good  sense.  Cloth,  12mo.  .  .  $1.00 

Forest  Planting. 

By  H.  Nicholas  Jarchow,  LL.  D.  A  treatise  on  the  care 
of  woodlands  and  the  restoration  of  the  denuded  timber- 
lands  on  plains  and  mountains.  The  author  has  fully 
described  those  European  methods  which  have  proved 
to  be  most  useful  in  maintaining  the  superb  forests  of  the 
old  world.  This  experience  has  been  adapted  to  the  dif- 
ferent climates  and  trees  of  America,  full  instructions 
being  given  for  forest  planting  of  our  various  kinds  of 
soil  and  subsoil,  whether  on  mountain  or  valley. 
Illustrated,  12mo $1.50 

Soils  and  Crops  of  the  Farm. 

By  George  E.  Morrow,  M.  A.,  and  Thomas  F.  Hunt.  The 
methods  of  making  available  the  plant  food  in  the  soil 
are  described  in  popular  language.  A  short  history  of 
each  of  the  farm  crops  is  accompanied  by  a  discussion 
of  its  culture.  The  useful  discoveries  of  science  are 
explained  as  applied  in  the  most  approved  methods  of 
culture.  Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo $1.00 

American  Fruit  Culturist. 

By  John  J.  Thomas.  Containing  practical  directions  for 
the  propagation  and  culture  of  all  the  fruits  adapted  to 
the  United  States.  Twentieth  thoroughly  revised  and 
greatly  enlarged  edition  by  Wm.  H.  S.  Wood.  This  new 
edition  makes  the  work  practically  almost  a  new  book, 
containing  everything  pertaining  to  large  and  small 
fruits  as  well  as  sub-tropical  and  tropical  fruits.  Richly 
illustrated  by  nearly  800  engravings.  758  pp.,  12mo.  $2.50 

Fertilizers. 

By  Edward  B.  Voorhees,  director  of  the  New  Jersey  Agri- 
cultural Experiment  Station.  It  has  been  the  aim  of 
the  author  to  point  out  the  underlying  principles  and  te 
discuss  the  important  subjects  connected  with  the  use 
of  fertilizer  materials.  The  natural  fertility  of  the  soil, 
the  functions  of  manures  and  fertilizers,  and  the  need 
of  artificial  fertilizers  are  exhaustively  discussed.  Sepa- 
rate chapters  are  devoted  to  the  various  fertilizing  ele- 
ments, to  the  purchase,  chemical  analyses,  methods  of 
using  fertilizers,  and  the  best  fertilizers  for  each  of  the 
most  important  field,  garden  and  orchard  crops. 
335  pp $1.00 


STANDARD   BOOKS. 


Gardening  for  Profit. 

By  Peter  Henderson.  The  standard  work  on  market  anc 
family  gardening.  The  successful  experience  of  the  author 
for  more  than  thirty  years,  and  his  willingness  to  teli 
as  he  does  in  this  work,  the  secret  of  his  success  for 
the  benefit  of  others,  enables  him  to  give  most  valuable 
information.  The  book  is  profusely  illustrated.  Cloth, 
12mo. $1.50 

Herbert's  Hints  to  Horse  Keepers. 

By  the  late  Henry  William  Herbert  (Frank  Forester). 
This  is  one  of  the  best  and  most  popular  works  on  the 
horse  prepared  in  this  country.  A  complete  manual  for 
horsemen,  embracing:  How  to  breed  a  horse;  how  to  buy 
a  horse;  how  to  break  a  horse;  how  to  use  a  horse;  how 
to  feed  a  horse;  how  to  physic  a  horse  (allopathy  or  ho- 
moeopathy); how  to  groom  a  horse;  how  to  drive  a  horse; 
how  to  ride  a  horse,  etc.  Beautifully  illustrated.  Cloth, 
12mo.  ...  $1.50 

Barn  Plans  and  Outbuildings. 

Two  hundred  and  fifty-seven  illustrations.  A  most  val- 
uable work,  full  of  ideas,  hints,  suggestions,  plans,  etc., 
for  the  construction  of  barns  and  outbuildings,  by  prac- 
tical writers.  Chanters  are  devoted  to  the  economic 
erection  and  use  of  barns,  grain  barns,  house  barns, 
cuttle  barns,  sheep  barns,  corn  houses,  smoke  houses, 
ice  houses,  pig  pens,  granaries,  etc.  There  are  likewise 
chapters  on  bird  houses,  dog  houses,  tool  sheds,  ventila- 
tors, roofs  and  roofing,  doors  and  fastenings,  workshops, 
poultry  houses,  manure  sheds,  barnyards,  root  pits,  etc. 
Cloth,  12mo. $1.00 

Cranberry  Culture. 

By  Joseph  J.  White.  Contents:  Natural  history,  history 
of  cultivation,  choice  of  location,  preparing  the  ground, 
planting  the  vines,  management  of  meadows,  flooding, 
^nemies  and  difficulties  overcome,  picking,  keeping,  pro- 
fit and  loss.  Cloth,  12mo $1.»0 

Ornamehtal  Gardening  for  Americans. 

By  Elias  A.  Long,  landscape  architect.  A  treatise  on 
beautifying  homes,  rural  districts  and  cemeteries.  A 
plain  and  practical  work  with  numerous  illustrations  and 
instructions  so  plain  that  they  inay  be  readily  followed. 
Illustrated.  Cloth,  12mo $1.50 

Grape  Culturist. 

By  A.  S.  Fuller.  This  is  one  of  the  very  best  of  works 
on  the  culture  of  the  hardy  grapes,  with  full  directions 
for  all  departments  of  propagation,  culture,  etc.,  with 
150  excellent  engravings,  illustrating  planting,  training, 
grafting,  etc.  Cloth,  12mo $1.50 


RETURN  TO  the  circulation  desk  of  any 
University  of  California  Library 

or  to  the 

NORTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 
Bldg.  400,  Richmond  Field  Station 
University  of  California 
Richmond,  CA  94804-4698 

ALL  BOOKS  MAY  BE  RECALLED  AFTER  7  DAYS 

•  2-month  loans  may  be  renewed  by  calling 
(510)642-6753 

•  1-year  loans  may  be  recharged  by  bringing 
books  to  NRLF 

•  Renewals  and  recharges  may  be  made  4 
days  prior  to  due  date. 

DUE  AS  STAMPED  BELOW 
SEXTON  ILL 

MAR  3  0  2000 

U.  C.  BERKELEY 


12,000(11/95) 


YB  46452 


- 


